Mechanisms behind the formation of microstructural defects in powder bed fusion processes: a review

Jasper Ramon; Gulshan Kumar; Ivan Cole; Hua Qian Ang

doi:10.1007/s40436-025-00585-6

Advances in Manufacturing ›› :1 -33. DOI: 10.1007/s40436-025-00585-6

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review-article

Mechanisms behind the formation of microstructural defects in powder bed fusion processes: a review

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¹School of Engineering, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, 3001, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

²Department of Mechanical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Dubai Campus, Dubai International Academic City, 345055, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

³School of Engineering, The Australian National University, 2600, Canberra, ACT, Australia

Corresponding author:

huaqian.ang@rmit.edu.au

Jasper Ramon

Jasper Ramon is a junior research fellow in Department of Mechanical Engineering at the National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal. His research focuses on laser-directed energy deposition, functionally graded metallic structures, and microstructural defect mechanisms. He has previously worked in both fusion and solid-state joining processes. He has published several SCIE-indexed papers and holds a granted international patent. He holds a Master’s degree in Manufacturing Engineering from Manipal Academy of Higher Education.

Gulshan Kumar

Gulshan Kumar is an assistant professor in Department of Mechanical Engineering at BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus. His expertisespans crystallographic texture, microstructural evolution, and the mechanical behaviour of materials, with a strong focus on metal forming and residual stress analysis. He is skilled in finite element analysis, materials characterization, and X-ray diffraction techniques. His research and teaching interests also extend to manufacturing systems, lean manufacturing, Six Sigma, quality control, and production and operations management.

Ivan Cole

Ivan Cole is a leader in the rapid discovery of advanced materials for corrosion protection, nanostructures, and additivemanufacturing, integrating computational modelling with high-throughput experimentation. With more than 30 years of experience across academia, industry, and CSIRO, he pioneers innovative methods that unite multiscale modelling, data-driven analysis, and robotic experimentation to accelerate the design of new materials, processes, and corrosion inhibitors. His work spans corrosion science, biocompatible surfaces, and sensing nanostructures. Prof. Cole remains deeply engaged in developing research programs and supervising higher-degree researchers while advancing cutting-edge approaches that bridge molecular-scale insights with realworld performance.

Hua Qian Ang

Hua Qian Ang is the founder of EPIC Engineering Comic, a chartered professional engineer with engineers australia, a seniorfellow of Advance HE, and an award-winning engineering educator, researcher, and cartoonist. Dr. Ang is deeply passionate about engineering education, with a vision to make it free, accessible, and equitable worldwide. Dr. Ang’s research focuses on the mechanical properties and deformation behaviour of light alloys, particularly magnesium alloys. She is also interested in additive manufacturing and laser processing of metals and alloys. Outside of academia, Dr. Ang currently holds multiple volunteer roles focused on supporting community-driven engineering initiatives. She has been widely recognised in the media for her innovative contributions to engineering and education.

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Abstract

Powder bed fusion (PBF) is a leading metal additive manufacturing technique capable of producing complex, high-precision components with superior material efficiency. However, the technology’s widespread adoption is limited by the presence of microstructural defects such as porosity, cracks, and textured columnar grains. These defects, originating from both feedstock characteristics and process instabilities, significantly undermine the structural integrity, fatigue resistance, and reliability of manufactured parts. To systematically address these challenges, this review classifies microstructural defects into feedstock-induced and process-induced categories, examining their formation mechanisms and impact on mechanical properties. Feedstock-induced defects, including satellite formation, internal porosity, and surface contamination, stem from irregularities in feedstock morphology and handling conditions. Process-induced defects, such as lack of fusion pores, keyhole porosity, and cracking, are strongly correlated to thermal gradients, melt pool dynamics, and energy density variations. Furthermore, this work examines defect mitigation strategies, including feedstock optimization (powder atomization, particle morphology control), process parameter refinement (energy density regulation, scan strategy optimization), and post-processing techniques (hot isostatic pressing, surface treatments). A summarized classification of defects, their mechanisms, effects on mechanical properties, and mitigation strategies is provided as a comprehensive reference for researchers and practitioners. Through the integration of experimental findings, multi-physics modeling, and advanced in-situ diagnostics, this review establishes a framework for understanding defect formation and its influence on process-structure-property relationships. The insights provided address current limitations in defect modeling and control, guiding future research toward achieving higher repeatability and scalability in industrial applications.

Keywords

Powder bed fusion (PBF) / Defects / Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) / Electron beam powder bed fusion (EB-PBF) / Porosity / Cracks

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Jasper Ramon, Gulshan Kumar, Ivan Cole, Hua Qian Ang. Mechanisms behind the formation of microstructural defects in powder bed fusion processes: a review. Advances in Manufacturing 1-33 DOI:10.1007/s40436-025-00585-6

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