AIEgens: An Exemplary Template for “One-for-All” Multimodal Phototheranostics

Abstract

Multimodal phototheranostics, capitalizing on the synergistic interplay of distinct optical diagnostic and therapeutic modalities, stand at the forefront of modern theranostic development. Among the pursued approaches, the “one-for-all” paradigm, which utilizes a single organic component to achieve four classic phototheranostic functions (i.e., fluorescence imaging, photoacoustic imaging, photodynamic therapy, and photothermal therapy), has gained considerable traction. Benefitting from the simple building block, the “one-for-all” phototheranostic agents generally exhibit well-defined molecular architectures, finely tunable excited-state energy pathways, excellent batch-to-batch reproducibility, predictable pharmacokinetic profiles, and superior biocompatibility, collectively pointing toward strong clinical translation potential. In this context, aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) have arisen as an exceptionally versatile molecular template, because their unique structural attributes offer precise control over the aggregation behavior and photophysical dynamics required for integrated phototheranostic design. In view of this, this review aims to propose a consensus that AIEgens serve as a quintessential template for “one-for-all” multimodal phototheranostics, and articulate the underlying rationale from a photophysical perspective. It comprehensively examines molecular engineering principles and performance optimization tactics for AIEgen-based “one-for-all” systems, framed within the fundamental photophysical concept of excited-state energy regulation. Furthermore, with a translational outlook, this review critically assesses the current challenges and proposes forward-looking research trajectories, seeking to identify promising, underexplored avenues that could accelerate practical clinical application.

Keywords

aggregation behavior modulation / aggregation-induced emission / molecular engineering / multimodal phototheranostics / “one-for-all” phototheranostics

References

[1] K. K. Ng and G. Zheng, “Molecular Interactions in Organic Nanoparticles for Phototheranostic Applications,” Chemical Reviews 115 (2015): 11012-11042.

[2] T. Zhang, X. Qu, J. Shao, et al., “Organic Photosensitizers: From Molecular Design to Phototheranostics,” Chemical Society Reviews 54 (2025): 8406-8433.

[3] X. Li, J. F. Lovell, J. Yoon, et al., “Clinical Development and Potential of Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapies for Cancer,” Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology 17 (2020): 657-674.

[4] J. Shi, Y. Fan, Q. Zhang, et al., “Harnessing Photo-Energy Conversion in Nanomaterials for Precision Theranostics,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): e2501623.

[5] P. J. Gawne, M. Ferreira, M. Papaluca, et al., “New Opportunities and Old Challenges in the Clinical Translation of Nanotheranostics,” Nature Reviews Materials 8 (2023): 783-798.

[6] I. Diamond, S. G. Granelli, A. F. McDonagh, et al., “Photodynamic Therapy of Malignant Tumours,” Lancet 300 (1972): 1175-1177.

[7] P. P. Joshi, Y. S. Chen, S. Kim, et al., “Molecular Therapeutic Agents for Noninvasive Photoacoustic Image-Guided Photothermal Therapy,” Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society 2009 (2009): 4106-4109.

[8] W. Lu, M. P. Melancon, C. Xiong, et al., “Effects of Photoacoustic Imaging and Photothermal Ablation Therapy Mediated by Targeted Hollow Gold Nanospheres in an Orthotopic Mouse Xenograft Model of Glioma,” Cancer Research 71 (2011): 6116-6121.

[9] Y. S. Chen, P. Kruizinga, P. P. Joshi, et al., “In on Stability of Molecular Therapeutic Agents for Noninvasive Photoacoustic and Ultrasound Image-Guided Photothermal Therapy,” Photons Plus Ultrasound: Imaging and Sensing 2010 (2010): 393-400.

[10] Y. S. Chen, W. Frey, S. Kim, et al., “Enhanced Thermal Stability of Silica-Coated Gold Nanorods for Photoacoustic Imaging and Image-Guided Therapy,” Optics Express 18 (2010): 8867.

[11] Y. Jiang and K. Pu, “Multimodal Biophotonics of Semiconducting Polymer Nanoparticles,” Accounts of Chemical Research 51 (2018): 1840-1849.

[12] M. P. Melancon, M. Zhou, and C. Li, “Cancer Theranostics With Near-Infrared Light-Activatable Multimodal Nanoparticles,” Accounts of Chemical Research 44 (2011): 947-956.

[13] B. Del Rosal, B. Jia, and D. Jaque, “Beyond Phototherapy: Recent Advances in Multifunctional Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Light-Triggered Tumor Theranostics,” Advanced Functional Materials 28 (2018): 1803733.

[14] W. Fan, B. Yung, P. Huang, et al., “Nanotechnology for Multimodal Synergistic Cancer Therapy,” Chemical Reviews 117 (2017): 13566-13638.

[15] J. Liao, T. Qi, B. Chu, et al., “Multifunctional Nanostructured Materials for Multimodal Cancer Imaging and Therapy,” Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 14 (2014): 175-189.

[16] D. E. Lee, H. Koo, I. C. Sun, et al., “Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Multimodal Imaging and Theragnosis,” Chemical Society Reviews 41 (2012): 2656-2672.

[17] R. Vankayala and K. C. Hwang, “Near-Infrared-Light-Activatable Nanomaterial-Mediated Phototheranostic Nanomedicines: An Emerging Paradigm for Cancer Treatment,” Advanced Materials 30 (2018): e1706320.

[18] J. Zeng, W. Yang, D. Shi, et al., “Porphyrin Derivative Conjugated With Gold Nanoparticles for Dual-Modality Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapies in Vitro,” ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering 4 (2018): 963-972.

[19] M. Trapani, A. Romeo, T. Parisi, et al., “Supramolecular Hybrid Assemblies Based on Gold Nanoparticles, Amphiphilic Cyclodextrin and Porphyrins With Combined Phototherapeutic Action,” RSC Advances 3 (2013): 5607.

[20] N. Hlapisi, T. E. Motaung, L. Z. Linganiso, et al., “Encapsulation of Gold Nanorods With Porphyrins for the Potential Treatment of Cancer and Bacterial Diseases: A Critical Review,” Bioinorganic Chemistry and Application 2019 (2019): 1-27.

[21] H. S. Jung, J. H. Lee, K. Kim, et al., “A Mitochondria-Targeted Cryptocyanine-Based Photothermogenic Photosensitizer,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 139 (2017): 9972-9978.

[22] L. Guo, G. Niu, X. Zheng, et al., “Single Near-Infrared Emissive Polymer Nanoparticles as Versatile Phototheranostics,” Advanced Science 4 (2017): 1700085.

[23] X. Li, S. Yu, Y. Lee, et al., “In Vivo Albumin Traps Photosensitizer Monomers From Self-Assembled Phthalocyanine Nanovesicles: A Facile and Switchable Theranostic Approach,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 141 (2019): 1366-1372.

[24] Q. Wang, B. Xia, J. Xu, et al., “Biocompatible Small Organic Molecule Phototheranostics for NIR-II Fluorescence/Photoacoustic Imaging and Simultaneous Photodynamic/Photothermal Combination Therapy,” Materials Chemistry Frontiers 3 (2019): 650-655.

[25] X. Lu, J. Chen, J. Li, et al., “Single Nanoparticles as Versatile Phototheranostics for Tri-Modal Imaging-Guided Photothermal Therapy,” Biomaterials Science 7 (2019): 3609-3613.

[26] Q. Wang, J. Xu, R. Geng, et al., “High Performance One-For-All Phototheranostics: NIR-II Fluorescence Imaging Guided Mitochondria-Targeting Phototherapy With a Single-Dose Injection and 808 Nm Laser Irradiation,” Biomaterials 231 (2020): 119671.

[27] Z. Zhang, M. Kang, H. Tan, et al., “The Fast-growing Field of Photo-Driven Theranostics Based on Aggregation-Induced Emission,” Chemical Society Reviews 51 (2022): 1983-2030.

[28] M. Kang, Z. Zhang, N. Song, et al., “Aggregation-Enhanced Theranostics: AIE Sparkles in Biomedical Field,” Aggregate 1 (2020): 80-106.

[29] J. Qi, H. Ou, Q. Liu, et al., “Gathering Brings Strength: How Organic Aggregates Boost Disease Phototheranostics,” Aggregate 2 (2021): 95-113.

[30] D. Wang, M. M. S. Lee, W. Xu, et al., “Theranostics Based on AIEgens,” Theranostics 8 (2018): 4925-4956.

[31] J. Mei, N. L. Leung, R. T. Kwok, et al., “Aggregation-Induced Emission: Together We Shine, United We Soar!,” Chemical Reviews 115 (2015): 11718-11940.

[32] J. Luo, Z. Xie, J. W. Lam, et al., “Aggregation-Induced Emission of 1-Methyl-1,2,3,4,5-Pentaphenylsilole,” Chemical Communications 37 (2001): 1740-1741.

[33] X. Cai and B. Liu, “Aggregation-Induced Emission: Recent Advances in Materials and Biomedical Applications,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59 (2020): 9868-9886.

[34] D. Yan, D. Wang, and B. Z. Tang, “In Vivo, Clinical and Translational Aspects of Aggregation-Induced Emission,” Nature Reviews Bioengineering 3 (2025): 976-991.

[35] L. Chen, S. L. Chen, Y. Yuan, et al., “Complexity Made Easy: Aggregation-Induced Emission Small Molecules for Cancer Diagnosis and Phototherapies,” Aggregate 5 (2024): e657.

[36] Z. Zhuang, J. Li, P. Shen, et al., “Exploring and Leveraging Aggregation Effects on Reactive Oxygen Species Generation in Photodynamic Therapy,” Aggregate 5 (2024): e540.

[37] Q. Huang, Y. Chen, S. Wang, et al., “Intelligent Theranostic Systems Enabled by Aggregation-Induced Emission in Precision Medicine,” Aggregate 6 (2025): e70156.

[38] Z. Zhang, X. Li, H. Yang, et al., “NIR-II AIEgens for High-Contrast Intravital Fluorescence Angiography: Recent Advances and Prospects,” Aggregate 6 (2025): e70102.

[39] G. Feng, G. Q. Zhang, and D. Ding, “Design of Superior Phototheranostic Agents Guided by Jablonski Diagrams,” Chemical Society Reviews 49 (2020): 8179-8234.

[40] X. Li, H. Yang, P. Zheng, et al., “Aggregation-Induced Emission Materials: A Platform for Diverse Energy Transformation and Applications,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11 (2023): 4850-4875.

[41] C. Chen, H. Ou, R. Liu, et al., “Regulating the Photophysical Property of Organic/Polymer Optical Agents for Promoted Cancer Phototheranostics,” Advanced Materials 32 (2020): 1806331.

[42] J. Shi, P. W. Kantoff, R. Wooster, et al., “Cancer Nanomedicine: Progress, Challenges and Opportunities,” Nature Reviews Cancer 17 (2017): 20-37.

[43] Z. Lei and F. Zhang, “Molecular Engineering of NIR-II Fluorophores for Improved Biomedical Detection,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 16294-16308.

[44] J. Mu, M. Xiao, Y. Shi, et al., “The Chemistry of Organic Contrast Agents in the NIR-II Window,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61 (2022): e202114722.

[45] M. Zhao and X. Chen, “Recent Advances in NIR-II Materials for Biomedical Applications,” Accounts of Materials Research 5 (2024): 600-613.

[46] M. Ethirajan, Y. Chen, P. Joshi, et al., “The Role of Porphyrin Chemistry in Tumor Imaging and Photodynamic Therapy,” Chemical Society Reviews 40 (2011): 340-362.

[47] A. Reisch and A. S. Klymchenko, “Fluorescent Polymer Nanoparticles Based on Dyes: Seeking Brighter Tools for Bioimaging,” Small 12 (2016): 1968-1992.

[48] C. Xu, R. Ye, H. Shen, et al., “Molecular Motion and Nonradiative Decay: Towards Efficient Photothermal and Photoacoustic Systems,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61 (2022): e202204604.

[49] H. Ou, S. Dai, R. Liu, et al., “Manipulating the Intramolecular Motion of AIEgens for Boosted Biomedical Applications,” Science China Chemistry 62 (2019): 929-932.

[50] Z. Zhao, C. Chen, W. Wu, et al., “Highly Efficient Photothermal Nanoagent Achieved by Harvesting Energy via Excited-State Intramolecular Motion Within Nanoparticles,” Nature Communications 10 (2019): 768.

[51] S. Liu, X. Zhou, H. Zhang, et al., “Molecular Motion in Aggregates: Manipulating TICT for Boosting Photothermal Theranostics,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 141 (2019): 5359-5368.

[52] H. Li, H. Wen, Z. Zhang, et al., “Reverse Thinking of the Aggregation-Induced Emission Principle: Amplifying Molecular Motions to Boost Photothermal Efficiency of Nanofibers**,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59 (2020): 20371-20375.

[53] F. Hu, S. Xu, and B. Liu, “Photosensitizers With Aggregation-Induced Emission: Materials and Biomedical Applications,” Advanced Materials 30 (2018): e1801350.

[54] J. Dai, X. Wu, S. Ding, et al., “Aggregation-Induced Emission Photosensitizers: From Molecular Design to Photodynamic Therapy,” Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 63 (2020): 1996-2012.

[55] D. Li, P. Liu, Y. Tan, et al., “Type I Photosensitizers Based on Aggregation-Induced Emission: A Rising Star in Photodynamic Therapy,” Biosensors 12 (2022): 722.

[56] Z. Zhang, W. Xu, P. Xiao, et al., “Molecular Engineering of High-Performance Aggregation-Induced Emission Photosensitizers to Boost Cancer Theranostics Mediated by Acid-Triggered Nucleus-Targeted Nanovectors,” ACS Nano 15 (2021): 10689-10699.

[57] J. Ni, Y. Wang, H. Zhang, et al., “Aggregation-Induced Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species: Mechanism and Photosensitizer Construction,” Molecules 26 (2021): 268.

[58] H. Yu, B. Chen, H. Huang, et al., “AIE-active Photosensitizers: Manipulation of Reactive Oxygen Species Generation and Applications in Photodynamic Therapy,” Biosensors 12 (2022): 348.

[59] J. Li, Z. Zhuang, Z. Zhao, et al., “Type I AIE Photosensitizers: Mechanism and Application,” View 3 (2022): 20200121.

[60] Z. Zhang, Y. Du, X. Shi, et al., “NIR-II Light in Clinical Oncology: Opportunities and Challenges,” Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology 21 (2024): 449-467.

[61] E. L. Schmidt, Z. Ou, E. Ximendes, et al., “Near-infrared II Fluorescence Imaging,” Nature Reviews Methods Primers 4 (2024): 23.

[62] F. Wang, Y. Zhong, O. Bruns, et al., “In Vivo NIR-II Fluorescence Imaging for Biology and Medicine,” Nature Photonics 18 (2024): 535-547.

[63] F. Feng, P. Wang, Y. Li, et al., “Versatile π-bridges in Nonfullerene Electron Acceptors of Organic Solar Cells,” Materials Chemistry Frontiers 7 (2023): 3855-3878.

[64] Y. Gu, H. Lai, S. Ruan, et al., “π-Bridge Regulates Donor-Acceptor Interactions for Long-Wavelength Photoacoustic Imaging and Enhanced Photothermal Therapy,” ACS Materials Letters 6 (2024): 4472-4481.

[65] P. Wang, F. Bi, Y. Li, et al., “Manipulating the Intermolecular Interactions Through Side Chain Engineering and Unilateral π-Bridge Strategy for Efficient Small Molecular Photovoltaic Acceptor,” Advanced Functional Materials 32 (2022): 2200166.

[66] Y. Gui, Y. Wang, D. Wang, et al., “Thiophene π-Bridge Manipulation of NIR-II AIEgens for Multimodal Tumor Phototheranostics,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63 (2024): e202318609.

[67] Z. Zhang, H. Cheng, Z. Yang, et al., “An NIR-III 3P Excitable AIE Nanoprobe for High-Quality Intravital Deep-Brain Angiography,” Aggregate 6 (2025): e70055.

[68] T.-T. Zhou, G.-Y. Ding, X. Li, et al., “Design of Near-Infrared Aggregation-Induced Emission Photosensitizers by π-Bridge Engineering for Boosting Theranostic Efficacy,” Chinese Chemical Letters 36 (2025): 110341.

[69] J. Zhu, Y. Zhu, Y. Ding, et al., “Unveiling Photophysical Mechanisms of NIR-II AIE Luminogens for Multimodal Imaging-navigated Synergistic Therapies,” National Science Review 12 (2025): nwaf254.

[70] J. Zhu, L. Tian, D. Yan, et al., “Mechanistic Insights into NIR-II AIEgens Boosted Multimodal Phototheranostics,” Small 21 (2025): e2410441.

[71] S. Yang, J. Zhang, Z. Zhang, et al., “More Is Better: Dual-Acceptor Engineering for Constructing Second Near-Infrared Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogens to Boost Multimodal Phototheranostics,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 145 (2023): 22776-22787.

[72] T. Yuan, J. Cui, J. Zhu, et al., “Multi-dimensional Donor Engineering of NIR-II AIEgens for Multimodal Phototheranostics of Orthotopic Breast Cancer,” Biomaterials 319 (2025): 123193.

[73] X. Wang, L. Liu, L. J. Wang, et al., “Optimizing Comprehensive Performance of Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanoparticles Through Molecular Packing Modulation for Multimodal Image-Guided Synergistic Phototherapy,” Advanced Healthcare Materials 10 (2021): e2100360.

[74] H. Xie, Z. Bi, J. Yin, et al., “Design of One-for-All Near-Infrared Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanoaggregates for Boosting Theranostic Efficacy,” ACS Nano 17 (2023): 4591-4600.

[75] W. Xu, Z. Zhang, M. Kang, et al., “Making the Best Use of Excited-State Energy: Multimodality Theranostic Systems Based on Second Near-Infrared (NIR-II) Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogens (AIEgens),” ACS Materials Letters 2 (2020): 1033-1040.

[76] T. Zhang, J. Zhang, F. B. Wang, et al., “Mitochondria-Targeting Phototheranostics by Aggregation-Induced NIR-II Emission Luminogens: Modulating Intramolecular Motion by Electron Acceptor Engineering for Multi-Modal Synergistic Therapy,” Advanced Functional Materials 32 (2022): 2110526.

[77] Y. Wang, P. Chen, H. Wen, et al., “Advanced Nanoplatform Mediated by CRISPR-Cas9 and Aggregation-Induced Emission Photosensitizers to Boost Cancer Theranostics,” ACS Nano 18 (2024): 33168-33180.

[78] L. Zhu, G. Song, W. Zhang, et al., “Aggregation Induced Emission Luminogen Bacteria Hybrid Bionic Robot for Multimodal Phototheranostics and Immunotherapy,” Nature Communications 16 (2025): 2578.

[79] H. Wen, Z. Zhang, M. Kang, et al., “One-for-all Phototheranostics: Single Component AIE Dots as Multi-Modality Theranostic Agent for Fluorescence-Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Synergistic Cancer Therapy,” Biomaterials 274 (2021): 120892.

[80] H. Gu, W. Liu, W. Sun, et al., “Single-molecule Photosensitizers for NIR-II Fluorescence and Photoacoustic Imaging Guided Precise Anticancer Phototherapy,” Chemical Science 13 (2022): 9719-9726.

[81] H. Ma, Y. An, Y. Han, et al., “A “3+2” Cooperation Pattern of Amphipathic AIE Phototheranostic System for Multimodal Image-Guided Synergistic Type I/II Photodynamic-Photothermal Therapy,” Advanced Science 12 (2025): e07956.

[82] D. Li, Y. Li, Q. Wu, et al., “Add the Finishing Touch: Molecular Engineering of Conjugated Small Molecule for High-Performance AIE Luminogen in Multimodal Phototheranostics,” Small 17 (2021): e2102044.

[83] S. Zhen, Z. Xu, M. Suo, et al., “NIR-II AIE Liposomes for Boosting Type-I Photodynamic and Mild-Temperature Photothermal Therapy in Breast Cancer Treatment,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): e2411133.

[84] Y. Xu, Y. Zhang, J. Li, et al., “NIR-II Emissive Multifunctional AIEgen With Single Laser-Activated Synergistic Photodynamic/Photothermal Therapy of Cancers and Pathogens,” Biomaterials 259 (2020): 120315.

[85] Y. Zhang, J. Wang, S. Wang, et al., “Simultaneous One-Step Regulation of Planarization and Donor Rotation to Enhance Multi-Modal Imaging Guided Therapy,” Materials Chemistry Frontiers 6 (2022): 2921-2928.

[86] Z. Xu, M. Lv, J. Yang, et al., “An Efficient Heat and Peroxynitrite Generating Nanoplatform for Multimodal Imaging-Guided Precision Tumor Phototherapy,” Aggregate 6 (2025): e70040.

[87] P. Zheng, X. Yan, J. Zhu, et al., “Molecularly Manipulating Pyrazinoquinoxaline Derivatives to Construct NIR-II AIEgens for Multimodal Phototheranostics of Breast Cancer Bone Metastases,” Biomaterials 317 (2025): 123105.

[88] Z. Zhang, W. Xu, M. Kang, et al., “An All-Round Athlete on the Track of Phototheranostics: Subtly Regulating the Balance Between Radiative and Nonradiative Decays for Multimodal Imaging-Guided Synergistic Therapy,” Advanced Materials 32 (2020): 2003210.

[89] M. Chen, Z. Zhang, R. Lin, et al., “A Planar Electronic Acceptor Motif Contributing to NIR-II AIEgen With Combined Imaging and Therapeutic Applications,” Chemical Science 15 (2024): 6777-6788.

[90] Z. Yang, Z. Zhang, Z. Lei, et al., “Precise Molecular Engineering of Small Organic Phototheranostic Agents Toward Multimodal Imaging-Guided Synergistic Therapy,” ACS Nano 15 (2021): 7328-7339.

[91] L. Liu, X. Wang, L. J. Wang, et al., “One-for-All Phototheranostic Agent Based on Aggregation-Induced Emission Characteristics for Multimodal Imaging-Guided Synergistic Photodynamic/Photothermal Cancer Therapy,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13 (2021): 19668-19678.

[92] Z. Sun, H. Wen, Z. Zhang, et al., “Acceptor Engineering-Facilitated Versatile AIEgen for Mitochondria-Targeted Multimodal Imaging-Guided Cancer Photoimmunotherapy,” Biomaterials 301 (2023): 122276.

[93] P. Chen, G. Zhang, J. Li, et al., “Aggregation-Induced Emission Probe for Fluorescence/Photoacoustic Dual-Modality Imaging and Photodynamic/Photothermal Treatment,” Chemical Research in Chinese Universities 40 (2024): 293-304.

[94] Y. Liao, Y. Mai, X. Liu, et al., “Nanostructured Cruciform Phototheranostic Agents for Efficient Multimodal Imaging-Guided Type I Photodynamic/Photothermal Synergistic Therapy,” Dyes and Pigments 229 (2024): 112283.

[95] J. Li, N. Niu, D. Wang, et al., “Acceptor-Engineering Tailored Type-I Photosensitizer With Aggregation-Induced NIR-II Emission for Cancer Multimodal Phototheranostics,” Science China Chemistry 67 (2024): 2647-2660.

[96] F. Würthner, “Aggregation-Induced Emission (AIE): A Historical Perspective,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59 (2020): 14192-14196.

[97] V. Hariprasad, K. S. Keremane, P. Naik, et al., “Tetraphenylethylene (TPE)-Based AIE Luminogens: Recent Advances in Bioimaging Applications,” Photochem 5 (2025): 23.

[98] D. D. La, S. V. Bhosale, L. A. Jones, et al., “Tetraphenylethylene-Based AIE-Active Probes for Sensing Applications,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 10 (2018): 12189-12216.

[99] C. R. Baiz, B. Błasiak, J. Bredenbeck, et al., “Vibrational Spectroscopic Map, Vibrational Spectroscopy, and Intermolecular Interaction,” Chemical Reviews 120 (2020): 7152-7218.

[100] L. A. Nafie, Vibrational Optical Activity: Principles and Applications (John Wiley & Sons, 2011).

[101] D. N. Sathyanarayana, Vibrational Spectroscopy: Theory and Applications (New Age International, 2015).

[102] M. Chen, X. Zhang, J. Liu, et al., “Evoking Photothermy by Capturing Intramolecular Bond Stretching Vibration-Induced Dark-State Energy,” ACS Nano 14 (2020): 4265-4275.

[103] X. Li, X. Ou, Z. Yang, et al., “Win-Win Integration of Genetically Engineered Cellular Nanovesicles With High-Absorbing Multimodal Phototheranostic Molecules for Boosted Cancer Photo-Immunotherapy,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): e2416590.

[104] C. You, Y. Zhu, J. Zhu, et al., “Strength in Numbers: A Giant NIR-II AIEgen With One-For-All Phototheranostic Features for Exceptional Orthotopic Bladder Cancer Treatment,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202417865.

[105] J. Li, N. Niu, D. Wang, et al., “As Aggregation-Induced Emission Meets With Noncovalent Conformational Locks: Subtly Regulating NIR-II Molecules for Multimodal Imaging-Navigated Synergistic Therapies,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202413219.

[106] E. Nestoros, A. Sharma, E. Kim, et al., “Smart Molecular Designs and Applications of Activatable Organic Photosensitizers,” Nature Reviews Chemistry 9 (2025): 46-60.

[107] N. Kwon, H. Weng, M. A. Rajora, et al., “Activatable Photosensitizers: From Fundamental Principles to Advanced Designs,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202423348.

[108] X. Li, J. Kim, J. Yoon, et al., “Cancer-Associated, Stimuli-Driven, Turn on Theranostics for Multimodality Imaging and Therapy,” Advanced Materials 29 (2017): 1606857.

[109] S. Zeng, Z. Guo, Y. Hao, et al., “Tumor-Microenvironment-Activatable Organic Phototheranostic Agents for Cancer Therapy,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 509 (2024): 215786.

[110] Y. Gao, D. Yan, X. Yang, et al., “The Midas Touch by Internal Stimuli: Activatable Luminogens With Near-Infrared Aggregation-Induced Emission for Potent Bioimaging and Theranostics,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2411002.

[111] N. M. Anderson and M. C. Simon, “The Tumor Microenvironment,” Current Biology 30 (2020): R921-R925.

[112] S. M. Crusz and F. R. Balkwill, “Inflammation and Cancer: Advances and New Agents,” Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology 12 (2015): 584-596.

[113] P. Xiao, W. Xie, J. Zhang, et al., “De Novo Design of Reversibly pH-Switchable NIR-II Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogens for Efficient Phototheranostics of Patient-Derived Tumor Xenografts,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 145 (2023): 334-344.

[114] S. Song, Y. Zhao, M. Kang, et al., “An NIR-II Excitable AIE Small Molecule With Multimodal Phototheranostic Features for Orthotopic Breast Cancer Treatment,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): e2309748.

[115] J. Li, Z. Zhang, S. Jiang, et al., “NIR-II Excitable Semiconducting Polymers With AIE Characteristics for Fluorescence-Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Synergistic Phototherapy,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2401627.

[116] B. M. Vickerman, E. M. Zywot, T. K. Tarrant, et al., “Taking Phototherapeutics From Concept to Clinical Launch,” Nature Reviews Chemistry 5 (2021): 816-834.

[117] J. Seung Lee, J. Kim, Y. S. Ye, et al., “Materials and Device Design for Advanced Phototherapy Systems,” Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 186 (2022): 114339.

[118] W. Zhang, M. Kang, X. Li, et al., “Fiber Optic-Mediated Type I Photodynamic Therapy of Brain Glioblastoma Based on an Aggregation-Induced Emission Photosensitizer,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): e2410142.

[119] W. Zhang, M. Kang, X. Li, et al., “Interstitial Optical Fiber-Mediated Multimodal Phototheranostics Based on an Aggregation-Induced NIR-II Emission Luminogen for Orthotopic Breast Cancer Treatment,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): e2406474.

[120] J. Zhu, Y. Zhu, J. Huang, et al., “Icing on the Cake: Integrating Optical Fiber With Second Near-Infrared Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogen for Exceptional Phototheranostics of Bladder Cancer,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): e2502452.

[121] J. S. Ho and Y. Zhang, “Wireless Nanomedicine for Brain Tumors,” Nature Nanotechnology 17 (2022): 907-908.

[122] Y. Lee and D. H. Kim, “Wireless Metronomic Photodynamic Therapy,” Nature Biomedical Engineering 3 (2019): 5-6.

[123] M. Xu, Y. Liu, K. Yang, et al., “Minimally Invasive Power Sources for Implantable Electronics,” Exploration 4 (2024): 20220106.

[124] M. B. Reinhart, C. R. Huntington, L. J. Blair, et al., “Indocyanine Green,” Surgical Innovation 23 (2016): 166-175.

[125] S. M. Park, A. Aalipour, O. Vermesh, et al., “Towards Clinically Translatable in Vivo Nanodiagnostics,” Nature Reviews Materials 2 (2017): 17014.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). Aggregate published by SCUT, AIEI, and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.