Turning on the Heat by Cocrystal Engineering: The Rise of Organic Charge Transfer Photothermal Cocrystals as an Emerging Therapeutic Frontier in Biomedical Application

Abstract

The field of molecular charge transfer cocrystals (CTCs) has advanced rapidly in recent years, with much work focused on their use in optoelectronic devices, photoacoustic imaging, photothermal therapy (PTT), optical waveguides, seawater desalination, and more. Organic photothermal CTCs are of particular interest because of their unique phototherapeutic effects in phototherapy and their remarkable imaging capabilities in fluorescence, magnetic resonance, and photoacoustic imaging, further enhancing their significance in medical applications. However, the use of photothermal CTCs in biomedicine has been limited, with few reported biological applications. Hence, there is a growing interest in CT-derived functional photothermal cocrystals potential contenders for targeted and controlled biomedical applications such as bacteria inhibition, cancer eradication, and tissue regeneration. This review offers insight into the recent advancements in crafting and producing CT-based materials with biomedical attributes. In addition, it outlines the current obstacles and future prospects in this burgeoning research domain, aiming to propel the continued advancement of CT-based biomaterials toward enhanced biomedical utilities. Overall, cocrystal-based near-infrared (NIR) photothermal materials have the potential to revolutionize a wide range of medical and technological applications and are an active area of research in chemistry, materials science, and nanotechnology.

Keywords

biomedical applications / charge transfer cocrystals / near-infrared (NIR) photothermal materials / photothermal therapy / therapeutic frontier

References

[1] M. Kang, Z. Zhang, N. Song, et al., “Aggregation-Enhanced Theranostics: AIE Sparkles in Biomedical Field,” Aggregate 1 (2020): 80-106.

[2] S. Liu, Y. Li, R. T. K. Kwok, J. W. Y. Lam, and B. Z. Tang, “Structural and Process Controls of AIEgens for NIR-II Theranostics,” Chemical Science 12 (2021): 3427-3436.

[3] Y. Liang, H. Zhang, H. Yuan, et al., “Conjugated Polymer and Triphenylamine Derivative Codoped Nanoparticles for Photothermal and Photodynamic Antimicrobial Therapy,” ACS Applied Bio Materials 3 (2020): 3494-3499.

[4] X. Li, F. Fang, B. Sun, et al., “Near-Infrared Small Molecule Coupled With Rigidness and Flexibility for High-Performance Multimodal Imaging-Guided Photodynamic and Photothermal Synergistic Therapy,” Nanoscale Horizons 6 (2021): 177-185.

[5] Y. Jiang, J. Li, X. Zhen, C. Xie, and K. Pu, “Dual-Peak Absorbing Semiconducting Copolymer Nanoparticles for First and Second Near-Infrared Window Photothermal Therapy: A Comparative Study,” Advanced Materials 30 (2018): 1705980.

[6] T. Wang, D. Torres, F. E. Fernández, C. Wang, and N. Sepúlveda, “Maximizing the Performance of Photothermal Actuators by Combining Smart Materials With Supplementary Advantages,” Science Advances 3 (2017): e1602697.

[7] G. Lin, J. J. Richardson, H. Ahmed, et al., “Programmable Phototaxis of Metal-Phenolic Particle Microswimmers,” Advanced Materials 33 (2021): 2006177.

[8] M. Cai, Z. Wu, Z. Li, et al., “Greenhouse-Inspired Supra-Photothermal CO₂ Catalysis,” Nature Energy 6 (2021): 807-814.

[9] J.-C. Yang, L. Wu, L. Wang, et al., “An Efficient Photothermal Conversion Material Based on D-A Type Luminophore for Solar-Driven Desalination,” Aggregate 5 (2024): e535.

[10] Y. Pan, M. Suo, Q. Huang, et al., “Near-Infrared Laser-Activated Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanoparticles Boost Tumor Carbonyl Stress and Immunotherapy of Breast Cancer,” Aggregate 5 (2024): e432.

[11] T. Sun, J. Guo, H. Wen, et al., “Rodlike Nanomaterials From Organic Diradicaloid With High Photothermal Conversion Capability for Tumor Treatment,” Aggregate 4 (2023): e362.

[12] X. Zeng, Y. Xiao, J. Lin, et al., “Near-Infrared II Dye-Protein Complex for Biomedical Imaging and Imaging-Guided Photothermal Therapy,” Advanced Healthcare Materials 7 (2018): 1800589.

[13] Y.-T. Chen, M.-P. Zhuo, X. Wen, W. Chen, K.-Q. Zhang, and M.-D. Li, “Organic Photothermal Cocrystals: Rational Design, Controlled Synthesis, and Advanced Application,” Advancement of Science 10 (2023): 2206830.

[14] T. Li, J.-C. Liu, E.-P. Liu, et al., “NIR-II Photothermal Conversion and Imaging Based on a Cocrystal Containing Twisted Components,” Chemical Science 15 (2024): 1692-1699.

[15] D. Yan, W. Xie, J. Zhang, L. Wang, D. Wang, and B. Z. Tang, “Donor/π-Bridge Manipulation for Constructing a Stable NIR-II Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogen With Balanced Phototheranostic Performance,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 26769-26776.

[16] P. Cheng, D. Wang, and P. Schaaf, “A Review on Photothermal Conversion of Solar Energy With Nanomaterials and Nanostructures: From Fundamentals to Applications,” Advanced Sustainable Systems 6 (2022): 2200115.

[17] Q. Huang, X. Ye, W. Chen, et al., “Boosting Photo-Thermo-Electric Conversion via a Donor-Acceptor Organic Cocrystal Strategy,” ACS Energy Letters 8 (2023): 4179-4185.

[18] Y. Xiao, C. Wu, S. Feng, K. Chen, L. Zhou, and Q. Yin, “Temperature-Responsive Cocrystal Engineering for Efficacious Delivery of Poorly Water-Soluble Herbicide,” Crystal Growth & Design 23 (2023): 8381-8395.

[19] Q. Feng, M. Wang, C. Xu, et al., “Investigation of Molecular Arrangements and Solid-State Fluorescence Properties of Solvates and Cocrystals of 1-Acetyl-3-Phenyl-5-(9-Anthryl)-2-Pyrazoline,” CrystEngComm 16 (2014): 5820-5826.

[20] H. Sun, J. Peng, K. Zhao, R. Usman, A. Khan, and M. Wang, “Efficient Luminescent Microtubes of Charge-Transfer Organic Cocrystals Involving 1,2,4,5-Tetracyanobenzene, Carbazole Derivatives, and Pyrene Derivatives,” Crystal Growth & Design 17 (2017): 6684-6691.

[21] R. Usman, A. Khan, H. Sun, and M. Wang, “Study of Charge Transfer Interaction Modes in the Mixed Donor-Acceptor Cocrystals of Pyrene Derivatives and TCNQ: A Combined Structural, Thermal, Spectroscopic, and Hirshfeld Surfaces Analysis,” Journal of Solid State Chemistry 266 (2018): 112-120.

[22] X. Wu, M. Wang, M. Du, et al., “Reversible Accommodation and Desorption of Aromatics on a Charge Transfer Cocrystal Involving an Anthracene Derivative and TCNQ,” Crystal Growth & Design 15 (2015): 434-441.

[23] J. S. Brooks, “Organic Crystals: Properties, Devices, Functionalization and Bridges to Bio-Molecules,” Chemical Society Reviews 39 (2010): 2667-2694.

[24] A. Khan, M. Wang, R. Usman, et al., “Organic Charge-Transfer Complexes for the Selective Accommodation of Aromatic Isomers Using Anthracene Derivatives and TCNQ,” New Journal of Chemistry 40 (2016): 5277-5284.

[25] H. Sun, M. Wang, X. Wei, et al., “Understanding Charge-Transfer Interaction Mode in Cocrystals and Solvates of 1-Phenyl-3-(Pyren-1-yl) Prop-2-en-1-one and TCNQ,” Crystal Growth & Design 15 (2015): 4032-4038.

[26] R. Usman, A. Khan, H. Tang, et al., “Charge Transfer and Hydrogen Bonding Motifs in Organic Cocrystals Derived From Aromatic Diamines and TCNB,” Journal of Molecular Structure 1254 (2022): 132360.

[27] B. Tang, W.-L. Li, Y. Chang, et al., “A Supramolecular Radical Dimer: High-Efficiency NIR-II Photothermal Conversion and Therapy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58 (2019): 15526-15531.

[28] D.-S. Zhang, Q. Gao, Z. Chang, et al., “Rational Construction of Highly Tunable Donor-Acceptor Materials Based on a Crystalline Host-Guest Platform,” Advanced Materials 30 (2018): 1804715.

[29] S. Li, L. Zheng, Y. Chan, et al., “An Organic Cocrystal Based On Phthalocyanine With Ideal Packing Mode Towards High-Performance Ambipolar Property,” Journal of Materials Chemistry C 10 (2022): 9596-9601.

[30] A. Narayanan, D. Cao, L. Frazer, et al., “Ferroelectric Polarization and Second Harmonic Generation in Supramolecular Cocrystals With Two Axes of Charge-Transfer,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 139 (2017): 9186-9191.

[31] W. Zhu, L. Zhu, Y. Zou, et al., “Deepening Insights of Charge Transfer and Photophysics in a Novel Donor-Acceptor Cocrystal for Waveguide Couplers and Photonic Logic Computation,” Advanced Materials 28 (2016): 5954-5962.

[32] W. Yu, X.-Y. Wang, J. Li, et al., “A Photoconductive Charge-Transfer Crystal With Mixed-Stacking Donor-Acceptor Heterojunctions Within the Lattice,” Chemical Communications 49 (2013): 54-56.

[33] M. A. Nascimento, E. Heyer, J. J. Clarke, et al., “On the Design of Radical-Radical Cocrystals,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58 (2019): 1371-1375.

[34] Ö. Üngör, M. Burrows, T. Liu, et al., “Paramagnetic Molecular Semiconductors Combining Anisotropic Magnetic Ions With TCNQ Radical Anions,” Inorganic Chemistry 60 (2021): 10502-10512.

[35] F. Kagawa, S. Horiuchi, M. Tokunaga, J. Fujioka, and Y. Tokura, “Ferroelectricity in a One-Dimensional Organic Quantum Magnet,” Nature Physics 6 (2010): 169-172.

[36] A. S. Tayi, A. K. Shveyd, A. C. H. Sue, et al., “Room-Temperature Ferroelectricity in Supramolecular Networks of Charge-Transfer Complexes,” Nature 488 (2012): 485-489.

[37] R. A. Wiscons, N. R. Goud, J. T. Damron, and A. J. Matzger, “Room-Temperature Ferroelectricity in an Organic Cocrystal,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 57 (2018): 9044-9047.

[38] L. Wang, J. Deng, M. Jiang, et al., “Arene-Perfluoroarene Interactions in Molecular Cocrystals for Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11 (2023): 11235-11244.

[39] J. Yang, J. Jing, and Y. Zhu, “A Full-Spectrum Porphyrin-Fullerene D-A Supramolecular Photocatalyst With Giant Built-In Electric Field for Efficient Hydrogen Production,” Advanced Materials 33 (2021): 2101026.

[40] Y. Xiao, L. Liu, P. Xu, et al., “Ternary Cocrystal with Long-Lived Charge-Transfer State for Efficient Light Conversion Applications,” Advanced Optical Materials 12 (2024): 2400747.

[41] T. Xue, C. Ma, L. Liu, C. Xiao, S.-F. Ni, and R. Zeng, “Characterization of A π-π Stacking Cocrystal of 4-Nitrophthalonitrile Directed Toward Application in Photocatalysis,” Nature Communications 15 (2024): 1455.

[42] T. Matsuo, K. Ikeda, and S. Hayashi, “Flexible Förster Resonance Energy Transfer-Assisted Optical Waveguide Based on Elastic Mixed Molecular Crystals,” Aggregate 4 (2023): e378.

[43] A. Khan, M. Liu, R. Usman, et al., “Solid Emission Color Tuning of Organic Charge Transfer Cocrystals Based on Planar π-Conjugated Donors and TCNB,” Journal of Solid State Chemistry 272 (2019): 96-101.

[44] A. Khan, R. Usman, R. Li, M. Hajji, H. Tang, and D. Ma, “Polycyclic Motif Engineering in Cyanostilbene-Based Donors Towards Highly Efficient Modulable Emission Properties in Two-Component Systems,” CrystEngComm 23 (2021): 8462-8470.

[45] A. Khan, R. Usman, S. M. Sayed, R. Li, H. Chen, and N. He, “Supramolecular Design of Highly Efficient Two-Component Molecular Hybrids Toward Structure and Emission Properties Tailoring,” Crystal Growth & Design 19 (2019): 2772-2778.

[46] A. Khan, M. Wang, R. Usman, H. Sun, M. Du, and C. Xu, “Molecular Marriage via Charge Transfer Interaction in Organic Charge Transfer Co-Crystals Toward Solid-State Fluorescence Modulation,” Crystal Growth & Design 17 (2017): 1251-1257.

[47] R. Usman, A. Khan, M. Wang, et al., “Investigation of Charge-Transfer Interaction in Mixed Stack Donor-Acceptor Cocrystals Toward Tunable Solid-State Emission Characteristics,” Crystal Growth & Design 18 (2018): 6001-6008.

[48] Y. Ding, Y. Zhao, and Y. Liu, “Organic Cocrystals: From High-Performance Molecular Materials to Multi-Functional Applications,” Aggregate 5 (2024): e626.

[49] A. Wang, X. Zhao, H. Zhang, Y. Ding, M. Xue, and L. Shao, “Charge-Transfer Host-Guest Complexes Based on Pillar[n]Arenes and Quinonoid Compounds for Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion,” Chemical Communications 60 (2024): 13722-13725.

[50] Y. Wang, W. Zhu, W. Du, et al., “Cocrystals Strategy Towards Materials for Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion and Imaging,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 57 (2018): 3963-3967.

[51] Y. Xiao, C. Wu, X. Hu, et al., “Mechanochemical Synthesis of Cocrystal: From Mechanism to Application,” Crystal Growth & Design 23 (2023): 4680-4700.

[52] D. Wang, X. Kan, C. Wu, et al., “Charge Transfer Co-Crystals Based on Donor-Acceptor Interactions for Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion,” Chemical Communications 56 (2020): 5223-5226.

[53] H. Xiang, Q. Yang, Y. Gao, et al., “Cocrystal Strategy Toward Multifunctional 3D-Printing Scaffolds Enables NIR-Activated Photonic Osteosarcoma Hyperthermia and Enhanced Bone Defect Regeneration,” Advanced Functional Materials 30 (2020): 1909938.

[54] S. Tian, Z. Huang, J. Tan, et al., “Manipulating Interfacial Charge-Transfer Absorption of Cocrystal Absorber for Efficient Solar Seawater Desalination and Water Purification,” ACS Energy Letters 5 (2020): 2698-2705.

[55] H. S. Jung, P. Verwilst, A. Sharma, J. Shin, J. L. Sessler, and J. S. Kim, “Organic Molecule-Based Photothermal Agents: An Expanding Photothermal Therapy Universe,” Chemical Society Reviews 47 (2018): 2280-2297.

[56] W. Zeng, Z. Li, H. Chen, X. Zeng, and L. Mei, “An Optimal Portfolio of Photothermal Combined Immunotherapy,” Cell Reports Physical Science 3 (2022): 100898.

[57] Y. D. Zhao, J. Han, Y. Chen, et al., “Organic Charge-Transfer Cocrystals Toward Large-Area Nanofiber Membrane for Photothermal Conversion and Imaging,” ACS Nano 16 (2022): 15000-15007.

[58] Y.-T. Chen, X. Wen, J. He, et al., “Boosting Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion by Intermolecular Interactions in Isomeric Cocrystals,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 14 (2022): 28781-28791.

[59] Y.-T. Chen, W. Chen, J. He, et al., “Tailormade Nonradiative Rotation Tuning of the Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion in Donor-Acceptor Cocrystals,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 125 (2021): 25462-25469.

[60] J. Xu, Q. Chen, S. Li, et al., “Charge-Transfer Cocrystal via a Persistent Radical Cation Acceptor for Efficient Solar-Thermal Conversion,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61 (2022): e202202571.

[61] W. Chen, S. Sun, G. Huang, et al., “Unprecedented Improvement of Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion Efficiency to 87.2% by Ultrafast Non-Radiative Decay of Excited States of Self-Assembly Cocrystal,” Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 12 (2021): 5796-5801.

[62] Z. Wang, A. Hao, and P. Xing, “Self-Assembled Helical Structures of Pyrene-Conjugated Amino Acids for Near-Infrared Chiroptical Materials and Chiral Photothermal Agents,” Chemistry of Materials 34 (2022): 1302-1314.

[63] P. Shi, X.-X. Liu, X.-L. Dai, T.-B. Lu, and J.-M. Chen, “Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion Properties of Carbazole-Based Cocrystals With Different Degrees of Charge Transfer,” CrystEngComm 24 (2022): 4622-4628.

[64] M.-M. Zhang, S.-L. Chen, A.-R. Bao, et al., “Anion-Counterion Strategy Toward Organic Cocrystal Engineering for Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion and Solar-Driven Water Evaporation,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63 (2024): e202318628.

[65] J. Xu, W. Chen, S. Li, et al., “Organic Stoichiometric Cocrystals With a Subtle Balance of Charge-Transfer Degree and Molecular Stacking Towards High-Efficiency NIR Photothermal Conversion,” Chinese Chemical Letters 35 (2024): 109808.

[66] M.-M. Zhang, S.-L. Chen, S. Huang, et al., “Primary Structural Units “D + A—” Ion Pairs Dominating Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion of Organic Ionic Cocrystals,” Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 15 (2024): 68-75.

[67] A. Navarro-Huerta, D. A. Hall, J. Blahut, et al., “Influence of Internal Molecular Motions in the Photothermal Conversion Effect of Charge-Transfer Cocrystals,” Chemistry of Materials 35 (2023): 10009-10017.

[68] W. Chen, L. Dang, Z. Situ, et al., “Near-Infrared Light Triggered a High Temperature Utilizing Donor-Acceptor Cocrystals,” Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 13 (2022): 6571-6579.

[69] T. Cui, S. Wu, Y. Sun, J. Ren, and X. Qu, “Self-Propelled Active Photothermal Nanoswimmer for Deep-Layered Elimination of Biofilm In Vivo,” Nano Letters 20 (2020): 7350-7358.

[70] H. Guo, S. Huang, A. Xu, and W. Xue, “Injectable Adhesive Self-Healing Multiple-Dynamic-Bond Crosslinked Hydrogel With Photothermal Antibacterial Activity for Infected Wound Healing,” Chemistry of Materials 34 (2022): 2655-2671.

[71] H. Wang, K.-F. Xue, Y. Yang, H. Hu, J.-F. Xu, and X. Zhang, “In Situ Hypoxia-Induced Supramolecular Perylene Diimide Radical Anions in Tumors for Photothermal Therapy With Improved Specificity,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 144 (2022): 2360-2367.

[72] M. Wei, J. Hu, F. Yu, et al., “NIR (II) Photothermal Imaging and Amplifying Photothermal Effect Through Magnetic Field in Organic Cocrystals,” Chemical Engineering Journal 508 (2025): 161089.

[73] X. Wen, Y.-T. Chen, J. He, et al., “Precise Tuning Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion of Ternary Cocrystals via Supramolecular Interactions,” Solar RRL 7 (2023): 2300262.

[74] D. Zhang, S. Li, S. Gao, et al., “NIR-II Organic Photothermal Cocrystals With Strong Charge Transfer Interaction for Flexible Wearable Heaters,” Chinese Journal of Chemistry 42 (2024): 1563-1570.

[75] Y. Pu, W. Wu, B. Zhou, et al., “Starvation Therapy Enabled “Switch-On” NIR-II Photothermal Nanoagent for Synergistic In Situ Photothermal Immunotherapy,” Nano Today 44 (2022): 101461.

[76] J. Xu, J. Guo, S. Li, et al., “Dual Charge Transfer Generated From Stable Mixed-Valence Radical Crystals for Boosting Solar-to-Thermal Conversion,” Advanced Science 10 (2023): 2300980.

[77] J.-C. Liu, T. Li, H. Yu, et al., “Integrating Molecular Motions in Ternary Cocrystals for NIR-II Photothermal Conversion,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202413805.

[78] C. Liu, Q. Chang, X. Fan, et al., “Rational Construction of CQDs-Based Targeted Multifunctional Nanoplatform for Synergistic Chemo-Photothermal Tumor Therapy,” Journal of Colloid & Interface Science 677 (2025): 79-90.

[79] W. Wei, H. Kang, C. Lian, et al., “Iron-Based Magnetic Nanocomplexes for Combined Chemodynamic and Photothermal Cancer Therapy Through Enhanced Ferroptosis,” Biomaterials Advances 166 (2025): 214046.

[80] X. Nie, X. Yang, D. Peng, et al., “Aqueous Green Synthesis of Organic/Inorganic Nanohybrids With an Unprecedented Synergistic Mechanism for Enhanced Near-Infrared Photothermal Performance,” Biomaterials Science 11 (2023): 5576-5589.

[81] J. Gao, C. Wu, D. Deng, P. Wu, and C. Cai, “Direct Synthesis of Water-Soluble Aptamer-Ag₂S Quantum Dots at Ambient Temperature for Specific Imaging and Photothermal Therapy of Cancer,” Advanced Healthcare Materials 5 (2016): 2437-2449.

[82] Y. Xu, C. Li, S. Lu, et al., “Solid-State Cooling by Elastocaloric Polymer With Uniform Chain-Lengths,” Nature Communications 13 (2022): 9.

[83] Y. Fan, C. Li, S. Bai, et al., “NIR-II Emissive Ru(II) Metallacycle Assisting Fluorescence Imaging and Cancer Therapy,” Small 18 (2022): 2201625.

[84] X. Zhang, C. Li, X. Guan, et al., “A Selenium-Based NIR-II Photosensitizer for a Highly Effective and Safe Phototherapy Plan,” Analyst 149 (2024): 859-869.

[85] Y. Yang, Y. Liu, J. Weng, X. Wen, Y. Liu, and D. Ye, “A Carbonic Anhydrase-Targeted NIR-II Fluorescent Cisplatin Theranostic Nanoparticle for Combined Therapy of Pancreatic Tumors,” Biomaterials 305 (2024): 122454.

[86] J. Zhang, Y. Li, M. Jiang, et al., “Self-Assembled Aza-BODIPY and Iron(III) Nanoparticles for Photothermal-Enhanced Chemodynamic Therapy in the NIR-II Window,” ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering 9 (2023): 821-830.

[87] L. An, L. Zheng, C. Xu, et al., “Organic Charge-Transfer Complexes for Near-Infrared-Triggered Photothermal Materials,” Small Structures 4 (2023): 2200220.

[88] L. Sun, Y. Wang, F. Yang, X. Zhang, and W. Hu, “Cocrystal Engineering: A Collaborative Strategy Toward Functional Materials,” Advanced Materials 31 (2019): 1902328.

[89] H. Jiang, P. Hu, J. Ye, et al., “Tuning of the Degree of Charge Transfer and the Electronic Properties in Organic Binary Compounds by Crystal Engineering: A Perspective,” Journal of Materials Chemistry C 6 (2018): 1884-1902.

[90] K. P. Goetz, D. Vermeulen, M. E. Payne, C. Kloc, L. E. McNeil, and O. D. Jurchescu, “Charge-Transfer Complexes: New Perspectives on an Old Class of Compounds,” Journal of Materials Chemistry C 2 (2014): 3065-3076.

[91] Q. Wu, R. Xia, H. Wen, T. Sun, and Z. Xie, “Nanoscale Porphyrin Assemblies Based on Charge-Transfer Strategy With Enhanced Red-Shifted Absorption,” Journal of Colloid & Interface Science 627 (2022): 554-561.

[92] K. Zhu, S. Qian, H. Guo, et al., “pH-Activatable Organic Nanoparticles for Efficient Low-Temperature Photothermal Therapy of Ocular Bacterial Infection,” ACS Nano 16 (2022): 11136-11151.

[93] Y. Li, M. He, Z. Liu, et al., “A Simple Strategy for the Efficient Design of Mitochondria-Targeting NIR-II Phototheranostics,” Journal of Materials Chemistry B 11 (2023): 2700-2705.

[94] Y. Liu, K. Ai, J. Liu, M. Deng, Y. He, and L. Lu, “Dopamine-Melanin Colloidal Nanospheres: An Efficient Near-Infrared Photothermal Therapeutic Agent for In Vivo Cancer Therapy,” Advanced Materials 25 (2013): 1353-1359.

[95] Y. Yoo, G. Jo, J. S. Jung, D. H. Yang, and H. Hyun, “Multivalent Sorbitol Probes for Near-Infrared Photothermal Cancer Therapy,” Particle & Particle Systems Characterization 37 (2020): 1900490.

[96] W. Ge, C. Liu, Y. Xu, et al., “Crystal Engineering of Ferrocene-Based Charge-Transfer Complexes for NIR-II Photothermal Therapy and Ferroptosis,” Chemical Science 13 (2022): 9401-9409.

[97] L. Zeng, L. Huang, Z. Wang, et al., “Self-Assembled Metal-Organic Framework Stabilized Organic Cocrystals for Biological Phototherapy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 23569-23573.

[98] C. Ou, W. Na, W. Ge, et al., “Biodegradable Charge-Transfer Complexes for Glutathione Depletion Induced Ferroptosis and NIR-II Photoacoustic Imaging Guided Cancer Photothermal Therapy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 8157-8163.

[99] B. A. Witika, Y. E. Choonara, and P. H. Demana, “A SWOT Analysis of Nano Co-Crystals in Drug Delivery: Present Outlook and Future Perspectives,” RSC Advances 13 (2023): 7339-7351.

[100] Y. Ren, H. Liu, X. Liu, et al., “Photoresponsive Materials for Antibacterial Applications,” Cell Reports Physical Science 1 (2020): 100245.

[101] M. J. Pallen and B. W. Wren, “Bacterial Pathogenomics,” Nature 449 (2007): 835-842.

[102] J. M. Sweere, J. D. Van Belleghem, H. Ishak, et al., “Bacteriophage Trigger Antiviral Immunity and Prevent Clearance of Bacterial Infection,” Science 363 (2019): eaat9691.

[103] S. Tian, H. Bai, S. Li, et al., “Water-Soluble Organic Nanoparticles With Programable Intermolecular Charge Transfer for NIR-II Photothermal Anti-Bacterial Therapy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 11758-11762.

[104] R. Zhang, C. Liu, C. Wei, et al., “Charge-Transfer Polymeric Hydrogels With Self-Healing, Injectable, Thermosensitive, Adhesive, and Antibacterial Properties for Diabetic Wound Healing,” Advanced Materials Technologies 8 (2023): 2201527.

[105] N. Niu, N. Yang, C. Yu, D. Wang, and B. Z. Tang, “NIR-II Absorbing Charge Transfer Complexes for Synergistic Photothermal-Chemodynamic Antimicrobial Therapy and Wounds Healing,” ACS Materials Letters 4 (2022): 692-700.

[106] D. Wang, W. Wang, H. Lu, et al., “Charge Transfer of ZnTPP/C60 Cocrystal-Hybridized Bioimplants Satisfies Osteosarcoma Eradication With Antitumoral, Antibacterial and Osteogenic Performances,” Nano Today 46 (2022): 101562.

[107] Z. Liu, L. Tan, X. Liu, et al., “Zn2+-Assisted Photothermal Therapy for Rapid Bacteria-killing Using Biodegradable Humic Acid Encapsulated MOFs,” Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 188 (2020): 110781.

[108] Y. Liu, L. Zhou, Y. Dong, et al., “Recent Developments on MOF-Based Platforms for Antibacterial Therapy,” RSC Medicinal Chemistry 12 (2021): 915-928.

[109] H. Hu, H. Wang, Y. Yang, J.-F. Xu, and X. Zhang, “A Bacteria-Responsive Porphyrin for Adaptable Photodynamic/Photothermal Therapy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61 (2022): e202200799.

[110] Z. Huang, Y. Wang, Y. Yang, et al., “Stabilizing Organic Radical Anion in Water by Metal-Organic Frameworks With Enhanced Stability for NIR Photothermal Antibacterial Therapy,” ACS Materials Letters 6 (2024): 535-542.

[111] F. Yang, Y. Li, R. Li, et al., “Fine-Tuning Macrocycle Cavity to Selectively Bind Guests in Water for Near-Infrared Photothermal Conversion,” Organic Chemistry Frontiers 9 (2022): 2902-2909.

[112] R. Li, F. Yang, L. Zhang, et al., “Manipulating Host-Guest Charge Transfer of a Water-Soluble Double-Cavity Cyclophane for NIR-II Photothermal Therapy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62 (2023): e202301267.

[113] F. Yang, Y. Li, K. Huang, W. Wei, and Y. Xu, “A Cyclophane-Based Host-Guest Charge Transfer Complex for NIR-II Photothermal Conversion,” New Journal of Chemistry 48 (2024): 2901-2906.

[114] L. Wang, W. Zhu, Y. Zhou, et al., “A Biodegradable and Near-Infrared Light-Activatable Photothermal Nanoconvertor for Bacterial Inactivation,” Journal of Materials Chemistry B 10 (2022): 3834-3840.

[115] A. Jassim, E. P. Rahrmann, B. D. Simons, and R. J. Gilbertson, “Cancers Make Their Own Luck: Theories of Cancer Origins,” Nature Reviews Cancer 23 (2023): 710-724.

[116] H. Sung, J. Ferlay, R. L. Siegel, et al., “Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries,” CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 71 (2021): 209-249.

[117] Q. Yin, P. Zhao, R. J. Sa, et al., “An Ultra-Robust and Crystalline Redeemable Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Framework for Synergistic Chemo-Photodynamic Therapy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 57 (2018): 7691-7696.

[118] B. T. Liu, X.-H. Pan, D. Y. Zhang, et al., “Construction of Function-Oriented Core-Shell Nanostructures in Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Frameworks for Near-Infrared-Responsive Bacterial Inhibition,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 25701-25707.

[119] D. Yu, H. Zhang, Z. Liu, et al., “Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Framework (HOF)-Based Single-Neural Stem Cell Encapsulation and Transplantation to Remodel Impaired Neural Networks,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61 (2022): e202201485.

[120] J. Tang, L. Shao, J. Liu, et al., “Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Framework-Stabilized Charge Transfer Cocrystals for NIR-II Photothermal Cancer Therapy,” Journal of Materials Chemistry B 11 (2023): 8649-8656.

[121] J.-R. Wu, G. Wu, D. Li, M.-H. Li, Y. Wang, and Y.-W. Yang, “Grinding-Induced Supramolecular Charge-Transfer Assemblies With Switchable Vapochromism Toward Haloalkane Isomers,” Nature Communications 14 (2023): 5954.

[122] D. Barman, M. Annadhasan, A. P. Bidkar, et al., “Highly Efficient Color-Tunable Organic Co-Crystals Unveiling Polymorphism, Isomerism, Delayed Fluorescence for Optical Waveguides and Cell-Imaging,” Nature Communications 14 (2023): 6648.

[123] W. Ge, Y. Xu, C. Liu, et al., “Structural Effect of NIR-II Absorbing Charge Transfer Complexes and Its Application on Cysteine-Depletion Mediated Ferroptosis and Phototherapy,” Journal of Materials Chemistry B 9 (2021): 8300-8307.

[124] Z. Wang, P. K. Upputuri, X. Zhen, et al., “pH-Sensitive and Biodegradable Charge-Transfer Nanocomplex for Second Near-Infrared Photoacoustic Tumor Imaging,” Nano Research 12 (2019): 49-55.

[125] Z. Wang, X. Zhen, P. K. Upputuri, et al., “Redox-Activatable and Acid-Enhanced Nanotheranostics for Second Near-Infrared Photoacoustic Tomography and Combined Photothermal Tumor Therapy,” ACS Nano 13 (2019): 5816-5825.

[126] X. Kong, Y. Yang, G. Wan, et al., “Charge-Transfer Complex Combining Reduced Cluster With Enhanced Stability for Combined Near-Infrared II Photothermal Therapy,” Advanced Healthcare Materials 11 (2022): 2102352.

[127] X. Gao, L. Li, X. Cai, Q. Huang, J. Xiao, and Y. Cheng, “Targeting Nanoparticles for Diagnosis and Therapy of Bone Tumors: Opportunities and Challenges,” Biomaterials 265 (2021): 120404.

[128] J. Liao, R. Han, Y. Wu, and Z. Qian, “Review of a New Bone Tumor Therapy Strategy Based on Bifunctional Biomaterials,” Bone Research 9 (2021): 18.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Aggregate published by SCUT, AIEI, and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.