Schizophrenia: a narrative review of etiological and diagnostic issues

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Despite the fact that schizophrenia has already been described historically and researched for a long time, this disorder remains unclear and controversial in many respects, including its etiology, pathogenesis, classification, diagnosis, and therapy.

METHODS: Literature from the selected sources (elibrary.ru, Russian Science Citation Index and the Russian branch of the Cochrane Library) were searched and analyzed using the diachronic method. Priority was given to reviews, guidelines, and original research on schizophrenia written during the past 10 years.

RESULTS: Historically, scientists have described schizophrenia as a single disorder, a group of disorders, or even as a combination of certain syndromes. The polymorphic symptoms and the most typical dynamics of various forms of schizophrenia have been systematized, but neither in Russia nor in other countries have the etiology and pathogenesis been proven. The reasons for the under- and overdiagnosis of schizophrenia cannot cover all possible objective and subjective difficulties arising in the diagnostic process.

CONCLUSION: The existing literature shows that the problem of schizophrenia may not be regarded as settled for a long time. This largely depends on the position of society, the development of biological sciences, and the pathomorphosis of the disorder itself. Many aspects of schizophrenia can become clearer and less controversial with systematic studies based on previous data, as well as data obtained using new research methods.

Keywords

schizophrenia / biological psychiatry / etiology / diagnostic approaches / diagnostic errors

References

[1] Bleiler E. Handbook of Psychiatry. Moscow: Izdatel′stvo Nezavisimoy psikhiatricheskoy assotsiatsii; 1993. (In Russ).

[2] Kraepelin E. Psychiatric. 5th ed. Moscow: Binom, Laboratoriya znanii; 2009. (In Russ).

[3] Korsakov SS. General psychopathology. Moscow: Binom, Laboratoriya znanii; 2003. (In Russ).

[4] Serbskii VP. On the issue of early dementia (dementia praecox). S.S. Korsakov journal of neurology and psychiatry. 1902;(1-2):33–61. (In Russ).

[5] Freud S. Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. Moscow: Eksmo; 2020. (In Russ).

[6] Jaspers K. Allgemeine psychopathologie. Moscow: Praktikum; 1997. (In Russ).

[7] Schneider K. Klinische psychopathologie. Kiev: Sphera; 1999. (In Russ).

[8] Sartorius N. Revision of the classification of mental disorders in ICD-11 and DSM-V: work in progress. Adv Psychiatr Treatment. 2018;16(1):2–9. doi: 10.1192/apt.bp.109.007138

[9] van Os J, Delespaul P, Wigman J, Myin-Germeys I, Wichers M. Beyond DSM and ICD: introducing “precision diagnosis” for psychiatry using momentary assessment technology. World Psychiatry. 2013;12(2):113–117. doi: 10.1002/wps.20046

[10] Snezhnevskii AV, editor. Schizophrenia: a multidisciplinary study. Moscow: Meditsina; 1972. (In Russ).

[11] Tiganov A, editor. A guide to popsychiatry. Vol. 1. Moscow: Meditsina; 1999. (In Russ).

[12] Mosolov SN, Yaltonskaya PA. Concept, classification and clinical differentiation of negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Contemporary Therapy оf Mental Disorders. 2020;(1):2–14. (In Russ).

[13] Semke VY, Krasil’nikov GT. Autism in schizophrenia (phenomenology, typology, prognostics). Novosibirsk: Novosibirskii gosudarstvennyi meditsinskii universitet; 1998. (In Russ).

[14] Tiganov AS, editor. Psychiatry. Scientific and practical reference. Moscow: Meditsinskoe informatsionnoe agentstvo; 2016:539–568. (In Russ).

[15] Johnstone EC, Crow TJ, Frith CD, Husband J, Kreel L. Cerebral ventricular size and cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenia. Lancet. 1976;2(7992):924–926. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(76)90890-4

[16] Crow TJ. Positive and negative schizophrenia symptoms and the role of dopamine. Br J Psychiatry. 1981;139:251–254. doi: 10.1192/bjp.139.3.251

[17] Sadock BJ. Кaplan and Sadok’s comprehensive. Textbook of Psychiatry. 10th edition. Wolters Kluwer; 2017.

[18] Gaebel W. Status of psychotic disorders in ICD-11. Schizophr Bull. 2012;38(5):895–898. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbs104

[19] Kostyuk GP, Shmukler AB, Golubev SA. Epidemiological aspects of diagnosis of schizophrenia in Moscow. Social Clin Psychiatry. 2017;27(3):5–9. (In Russ).

[20] Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna). The canon of medical science. Publishing house: Mn: Popurri; 2000.

[21] Kolta KS. Papyrus Ebers. In: Gerabek WE, Haage BD, Keil G, Wegner W, eds. Enzyklopädie Geschichte der Medizin. German: De Gruyter; 2005.

[22] Strassnig M, Kotov R, Cornaccio D, Fochtmann L, Harvey PD, Bromet EJ. Twenty-year progression of body mass index in a county-wide cohort of people with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder identified at their first episode of psychosis. Bipolar Disord. 2017;19(5):336–343. doi: 10.1111/bdi.12505

[23] Alexandrovsky YA. History of Russian psychiatry. Publishing house: Gorodets; 2020. (In Russ).

[24] Sivolap YP, Portnova AA, Yanushkevich MV, Savchenkov VA, Pushin PV. Schizophrenia as a subject of competence of psychiatrist, narcologist, cardiologist, endocrinologist and pathologist. Neurol Bulletin. 2021;LII(3):76–81. doi: 10.17816/nb44729

[25] Andreasen N. Symptoms, signs, and diagnosis of schizophrenia. Lancet. 1995;346(8973):477–481. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(95)91325-4

[26] Carpenter WT. One hundred years. Schizophr Bull. 2011;37(3):443–444. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbr032

[27] Institute of Clinical Psychiatry and Psychology. Innovations in modern psychiatry Yu.A. Alexandrovsky. February 13, 2013. http://psy-vl.ru/publ/1/1/5-1-0-155

[28] Smulevich AB. Schizophrenia or a group of endogenous diseases? The past and the present. J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakov. 2015;115(8):4–12. (In Russ). doi: 10.17116/jnevro2015115814-12

[29] Kondratiev FV. The fate of patients with schizophrenia (clinical, social and forensic psychiatric aspects). Moscow; 2010. (In Russ).

[30] Kotov VP, Maltseva MM. Reviewing the statistics on prevention of offences among mental patients. Social Clin Psychiatry. 2012;2(3):11–14. (In Russ).

[31] Jones P, Bucly P. Schizophrenia. Elsiever Limited; 2006.

[32] Shashkova NG, Semyonova ND. Patients with schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders that refuse outpatient guidance and treatment. Social Clin Psychiatry. 2019;1(1):24–31. (In Russ).

[33] Fedorovsky IG. Psychosocial characteristics of patients with paranoid schizophrenia with frequent rare hospitalizations. Saint Petersburg; 2019. (In Russ).

[34] Reznik A, Kostyuk G, Morozova A, Zakharova N. Problems of the prerequisites of schizophrenia according to molecular genetic studies. Health Food Biotechnol. (In Russ). 2019;1(1):27–45. doi: 10.36107/hfb.2019.i1.s163

[35] Bennett L, Thirlaway K, Murray AJ. The stigmatising implications of presenting schizophrenia as a genetic disease. J Genet Couns. 2008;17(6):550–559. doi: 10.1007/s10897-008-9178-8

[36] Morozova AY, Zubkov EA, Zorkina YA, Reznik AM, Kostyuk GP, Chekhonin VP. Genetic aspects of schizophrenia. J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakov. (In Russ). 2017;117(6):126–132. doi: 10.17116/jnevro201711761126-132

[37] Harrison PJ. Recent genetic findings in schizophrenia and their therapeutic relevance. J Psychopharmacol. 2015;29(2):85–96. doi: 10.1177/0269881114553647

[38] Kendler K, Zachar P, Craver C. What kinds of things are psychiatric disorders? Psychol Med. 2010;41(6):1143–1150. doi: 10.1017/s0033291710001844169

[39] Sekar A, Bialas AR, de Rivera H, et al. Schizophrenia risk from complex variation of complement component 4. Nature. 2016;530(7589):177–183. doi: 10.1038/nature16549

[40] Mirnics K, Middleton FA, Lewis DA, Levitt P. Analysis of complex brain disorders with gene expression microarrays: schizophrenia as a disease of the synapse. Trends Neurosci. 2001;24(8):479–486. doi: 10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01862-2

[41] Vasiliev VN. Diagnostics and therapy of incurable nervous and mental diseases of dopamine etiology. Biocorrection of Vasiliev. Publishing house: Mediakit; 2009. (In Russ).

[42] Creese I, Burt DR, Snyder SH. Dopamine receptor binding predicts clinical and pharmacological potencies of antischizophrenic drugs. Science. 1976;192(4238):481–483. doi: 10.1126/science.3854

[43] Nozdrachev AD, Maryanovich AT, Polyakov EL, Sibarov AD, Khavinson VKh. Nobel prize in physiology or medicine for 100 years. Saint Petersburg: Gumanistika; 2002. (In Russ).

[44] Yeragani VK, Tancer M, Chokka P, Baker GB. Arvid Carlsson, and the story of dopamine. Indian J Psychiatry. 2010;52(1):87–88. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.58907

[45] Pathmanandavel K, Starling J, Merheb V, et al. Antibodies to surface dopamine-2 receptor and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor in the first episode of acute psychosis in children. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;77(6):537–547. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.07.014

[46] Shkilnyuk G, Ilves A, Kataeva G, et al. The role of changes in glucose metabolism in the brain in the formation of cognitive impairments in patients with remitting and secondary-progressive multiple sclerosis. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2013;43(5):565–570. doi: 10.1007/s11055-013-9772-6

[47] Atyakova AS, Kovtyuh GS. Understanding schizophrenia: historical overview and modern concepts. Lechebnoe delo. 2016;(4):83–87. (In Russ).

[48] Orlova VA, Savina TD, Trubnikov VI, et al. Structural features of the brain (according to MRI data) and their functional connections in families of patients with schizophrenia. Russ J Psychiatry. 1998;(35):998–1004. (In Russ).

[49] Orlova VA, Serikova TM, Chernischouk EN, Eliseyeva NA, Kononenko IN. Concerning neurodegeneration in schizophrenia: data of spectral-dynamic analysis. Social Clin Psychiatry. 2010;20(2):67–79. (In Russ).

[50] Iritani S. What happens in the brain of schizophrenia patients? An investigation from the viewpoint of neuropathology. Nagonya J Med. 2013;1-2:11–28.

[51] Uzbekov MG, Misionzhnik EY. Nonspecific syndrome of endogenous intoxication as an integral component of the syndrome of mental disorders. Russ J Psychiatry. 2000;(4):56–65. (In Russ).

[52] Mikhailova II, Orlova VA, Minutko VL, et al. Clinical and immunological correlations in patients with unfavorable paroxysmal schizophrenia and their conjugation with MRI signs of brain abnormality. Psychological Health. 2014;(10):17–31. (In Russ).

[53] Prasad KM, Eack SM, Goradia D, et al. Progressive gray matter loss and changes in cognitive functioning associated with exposure to herpes simplex virus 1 in schizophrenia: a longitudinal study. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;168(8):822–830. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10101423

[54] Fedorenko OY, Ivanova SA. A new look at the genetics of neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia. J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakov. 2020;120(8):183–192. (In Russ). doi: 10.17116/jnevro2020120081183

[55] Kahlbaum KL, Emminghaus H. Die klinisch-diagnostischen Gesichtspunkte der Psychopathologie. German, Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel; 1878.

[56] Oifa AI. Brain and viruses (A virologic hypothesis of the origin of mental diseases). (In Russ). Accessed February 15, 2022. https://psychoreanimatology.org/download/books/Mozg_i_virusy.pdf

[57] Vilyanov VB, Egorov SV. Seasonal factors in the birth of patients with schizophrenia. Successes Modern Natural Sci. 2002;(2):31–36. (In Russ).

[58] Bolotina OV, Livanova YG, Kolesnichenko EV. Seasonality of birth with large schizophrenia. Bulletin Med Internet Conferences. 2014;4(11):1298–1299. (In Russ).

[59] Hippolyte L, Maillard AM, Rodriguez-Herreros B, et al. The number of genomic copies at the 16p11.2 locus modulates language, verbal memory, and inhibition. Biol Psychiatry. 2016;80(2):129–139. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.10.021

[60] Bassett AS, Chow EW. Schizophrenia and 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2008;10(2):148–157. doi: 10.1007/s11920-008-0026-1

[61] Torrey EF, Leweke MF, Schwarz MJ, et al. Cytomegalovirus and schizophrenia. CNS Drugs. 2006;20(11):879–885. doi: 10.2165/00023210-200620110-00001

[62] Polianskii DA, Kalinin VV. Immunology involvement in schizophrenia and HIV. Social Clin Psychiatry. 2015;25(4):85–91. (In Russ).

[63] Dickerson F, Jones-Brando L, Ford G, et al. Schizophrenia is associated with an aberrant immune response to Epstein-Barr virus. Schizophr Bull. 2019;45(5):1112–1119. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sby164

[64] Yolken R. Schizophrenia linked with abnormal immune response to Epstein Barr virus. January 9, 2019. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/01/190109090911.htm

[65] Leboyer M, Tamouza R, Charron D, Faucard R, Perron H. Human endogenous retrovirus type W (HERV-W) in schizophrenia: a new avenue of research at the gene-environment interface. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2013;14(2):80–90. doi: 10.3109/15622975.2010.601760

[66] Peitl MV. Schizophrenia, exorcism, spirituality. Рaper presented at: The Second Russian-Croatian International Congress on spiritual psychiatry, May 16–18, 2014. https://psychiatr.ru/download/1549

[67] Samsonov IS. Psychopathology and clinic of the syndrome of mastering religious content. Dissertation. Moscow; 2021. (In Russ). Accessed https://www.dissercat.com/content/psikhopatologiya-i-klinika-sindroma-ovladeniya-religioznogo-soderzhaniya-pri-shizofrenii

[68] Kondrat’ev FV. “Being held by demons” as a special phenomenon of mental disorder. Practice Forensic Psychiatric Examination. 2006;(44):189–197. (In Russ).

[69] Polozhiy BS. Ethnocultural psychiatry. In: Dmitrieva TB, Poshego BS, ed. Handbook of social psychiatry. 2nd ed. Moscow: Meditsinskoe informatsionnoe agentstvo; 2009:143–157. (In Russ).

[70] Kopeyko GI, Borisova OA, Gedevani EV. Psychopathology and phenomenology of religious delusion of possession in schizophrenia. J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakov. 2018;118(4):30–35. (In Russ). doi: 10.17116/jnevro20181184130-35

[71] Dameschek W. The white blood cells in dementia praecox and dementia paralytica. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1930;8(1):257–262.

[72] Hirata-Hibi M, Hayashi K. The anatomy of the P lymphocyte. Schizophr Res. 1993;8(3):257–262. doi: 10.1016/0920-9964(93)90024-d

[73] Semenov SF, Popova NN. Neuropsychiatric diseases in the light of brain immunopathology. Moscow: Meditsina; 1969. (In Russ).

[74] Kolyaskina GI. Patterns of autoimmune processes in schizophrenia (clinical, immunological and genetic correlations). Dissertation. Moscow; 1972.

[75] Vartanyan ME. Biological psychiatry: selected works. Moscow: RM-Vesti; 1999. (In Russ).

[76] Mikhailova II, Orlova VA, Minutko VL, et al. Anomalies in the level of serum autoantibodies to the am antigen of nerve tissues in patients with schizophrenia: a multiparametric immunological assessment. Social Clin Psychiatry. 2016;36 (1):12–20. (In Russ).

[77] Maiorova MA, Petrova NN, Churilov LP. Schizophrenia as an autoimmune disease: hypotheses and facts. Crimean J Experimental Clin Med. 2018;(4):62–79. (In Russ).

[78] Heath RG, Krupp IM, Byers LW, Lijekvist JI. Schizophrenia as an immunologic disorder. 3. Effects of antimonkey and antihuman brain antibody on brain function. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1967;16(1):24–33. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1967.01730190026003

[79] Steiner J, Walter M, Glanz W, et al. Increased prevalence of diverse N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptor antibodies in patients with an initial diagnosis of schizophrenia: specific relevance of IgG NR1a antibodies for distinction from N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptor encephalitis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70(3):271–278. doi: 10.1001/2013.jamapsychiatry.86

[80] Tauber AI. Reconceiving autoimmunity: an overview. J Theor Biol. 2015;375:52–60. doi: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2014.05.029

[81] Chekhonin VP, Gurina OI, Ryabukhin IA, et al. Immunoenzymic analysis of neurospecific proteins in diagnosing neuropsychic diseases. Russ J Psychiatry. 2006;(6):41–498. (In Russ).

[82] Chekhonin VP, Oskolkova SN, Fastovtsov GA, et al. Comparative quantitative analysis of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in patients with paranoid schizophrenia. Рaper presented at: Proceeding of 15th Congress of Russian psychiatrist; Moscow, November 9–12. Moscow: Medpraktika-M; 2010. (In Russ).

[83] Klyushnik TP, Tiganov AS, ed. Laboratory diagnostic methods in psychiatry. Psychiatry. Scientific and practical reference. Moscow: Meditsinskoe informatsionnoe agentstvo; 2016. (In Russ).

[84] Mondelli V, Ciufolini S, Murri BM, et al. Cortisol and inflammatory biomarkers predict poor treatment response in first episode psychosis. Schizophr Bull. 2015;41(5):1162–1170. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbv028

[85] Goldsmith DR, Rapaport MH, Miller BJ. A meta-analysis of blood cytokine network alterations in psychiatric patients: comparisons between schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression. Mol Psychiatry. 2016;21(12):1696–1709. doi: 10.1038/mp.2016.3

[86] Hussain D. Stress, immunity, and health: research findings and implications. Int J Psychol Rehab. 2010;15(1):94–100.

[87] Scherbakova IR. Features of innate and acquired immunity at high risk of schizophrenia and in the processes of its development (clinical and immunological aspects). Dissertation. Moscow; 2006. (In Russ). http://ncpz.ru/cond/0/diss/2006/5

[88] Eaton WW, Byrne M, Ewald H, et al. Association of schizophrenia and autoimmune diseases: linkage of Danish national registers. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(3):521–528. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.521

[89] Al-Diwani AA, Pollak TA, Irani SR, Lennox BR. Psychosis: an autoimmune disease? Immunology. 2017;152(3):388–401. doi: 10.1111/imm.12795

[90] Malashenkova IK, Krynskiy SA, Ogurtsov DI. A role of the immune system in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakov. 2018;118(12):72–80. (In Russ). doi: 10.17116/nevro. 201811812172

[91] Klyushnik TP, Barkhatova AN, Sheshenin VS, et al. Specific features of immunological reactions in elderly and young patients with exacerbation of schizophrenia. J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakov. 2021;121(2):53–59. (In Russ). doi: 10.17116/jnevro202112102153

[92] Khandaker G, Dantzer R, Jones P. Immunopsychiatry: important facts. Psychol Med. 2017;47(13):2229–2237. doi: 10.1017/s0033291717000745108

[93] Chechonin VP. Innovative Neuroscience from theory to practice. Рaper presented at: Proceedings of the 8th National Congress on psychiatry and narcology “Mental health: looking to the future”, Moscow, October 4–5. Moscow; 2021. (In Russ).

[94] Morozova A, Zorkina Y, Pavlov K, et al. Associations of genetic polymorphisms and neuroimmune markers with some parameters of frontal lobe dysfunction in schizophrenia. Front Psychiatry. 2021;(12):655178. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.655178

[95] Govorin NV, Vasilyeva AI. Neuromakers and endothelial dysfunction characteristics in acute schizophrenia. Social Clin Psychiatry. 2011;21(1):29–33. (In Russ).

[96] Uranova NA, Zimina IS, Vikhreva OV, Krukov NO, Rachmanova VI, Orlovskaya DD. Ultrastructural damage of capillaries in the neocortex in schizophrenia. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2010;11(3):567–578. doi: 10.3109/15622970903414188

[97] Strelets VB, Garakh ZV, Novototskii-Vlasov VY, Magomedov RA. Relationship between EEG power and rhythm synchronization in health and cognitive pathology. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2006;36(6):655–662. doi: 10.1007/s11055-006-0070-4

[98] Kirenskaya AV. EEG-studies in biological psychiatry: main trends and outlook. Russ J Psychiatry. 2006;(6):19–27. (In Russ).

[99] Kirenskaya AV, Storozheva ZI, Tkachenko AA. Neurophysiological endophenotypes as a tool for studying attention and controlling behavior: prospects for research and diagnostics. Saint Petersburg: Nestor-History; 2015. (In Russ).

[100] Bochkarev VK, Solnceva SV, Kirenskaya AV, Tkachenko AA. Comparative study of the characteristics of the P300 wave and the event-related θ rhythm in schizophrenia and personality disorders. Neuroscience Behav Physiology. 2020;51(1):1–6. doi: 10.1007/s11055-020-01030-w

[101] Tiganov AS, Yurov YB, Vorsanova SG, Yurov IY. Genomic instability in the brain: etiology, pathogenesis and new biological markers of psychiatric disorders. Ann Russ Academy Med Sci. 2012;67(9):45–53. (In Russ). doi: 10.15690/vramn.v67i9.406

[102] Alexandrovsky YuA. Psychiatry and society (Assembly lecture for doctors. 12.04.2016). Moscow; 2016. (In Russ).

[103] Shepherd M, Zangwill OL, ed. Handbook of psychiatry. Vol. 1. General psychipathology. Cambridge University Press; 1983:11–38. doi: 10.1192/S000712500020216X

[104] Kraepelin E. Psychiatrie: Ein kurzes lehrbuch für studierende und aerzte. VI Auflage, 1898; VII Auflage, 1904; VIII Auflage. Leipzig: Ambr Abel; 1913. Universelle Sammlung, German. (In Deutsch).

[105] Zelenin NV. Criteria for the effectiveness of psychiatric hospitalization and the forms of its accounting. Modern Neuropathology Psychiatry. 1948;7(1):118–135. (In Russ).

[106] Baruk H. Le prognosis destructeurs; le mefaites des diagnostics incomideres des schizophrenies. Sem Hop Paris.1954;301(34):2164–2169.

[107] Tatarenko NP. The “internal picture of the disease” in schizophrenia and its significance for the clinic. Med Research. 2001;1(1):140–143.

[108] Osipov VL. Private teaching about mental illness. Petrograd; 1928. (In Russ).

[109] Esquirol JE. Die maladies mentales: considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-legal. University of Ottawa; 1838. (In French).

[110] Serbskii VP. Psychiatry: a guide to the study of mental illness. 2nd ed. Moscow; 1912. (In Russ).

[111] Orshansky IT. Textbook of general psychiatry: a guide for students. Khar’kov: Parovaya tipografiya i litografiya M. Zil’berberg i S-v’ya; 1910. (In Russ).

[112] Akkerman VM. Experience of electroconvulsive therapy. J Neuropathol. 1948;(4):11. (In Russ).

[113] Buneev AN. Experience of electroconvulsive therapy. Moscow: Medgiz; 1950. (In Russ).

[114] Kraepelin E. Psychiatric. 5th edition. Moscow: Binom, Laboratory of Knowledge; 2009. (In Russ).

[115] Molochek AI. Psychoreactive mechanisms in schizophrenia. Problems Forensic Psychiatry. 1941;(3):94–117. (In Russ).

[116] Sereisky MYa. On the issue of the methodology for taking into account therapeutic effectiveness in the treatment of mental illness. Proceedings of the Institute Gannushkina. 1939;(4):9–25. (In Russ).

[117] Kolle K. Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch fur Studierende und Arzte. German: Vero Verlag; 1961. (In Deutsch).

[118] Melekhov DE. On the problem of residual and defective conditions in schizophrenia (in connection with the tasks of clinical and socio-labor prognosis). J Neurology Psychiatry named after S.S. Korsakov. 1981;81(1):128–138. (In Russ).

[119] Zharikov VM. On the issue of clinical features and therapy of certain forms of remissions in schizophrenia. In: Andreev NP, ed. Issues of forensic psychiatry. Moscow; 1960:214–223. (In Russ).

[120] Zenevich GV. Remissions in schizophrenia. Leningrad: Meditsina; 1964. (In Russ).

[121] Morozov GV, Tarasov YK. Some types of spontaneous remission in schizophrenia. J Neurology Psychiatry named after S.S. Korsakov. 1951;(4):44–47. (In Russ).

[122] Malin DI. Side effect of psychotropic drugs. Moscow: Vuzovskaya kniga; 2000. (In Russ).

[123] Tikhonov DV. Features of the formation of remission after the first psychotic attack suffered in adolescence (multidisciplinary study). Dissertation. Moscow; 2020. (In Russ). http://ncpz.ru/siteconst/userfiles/file/diss/Tikhonov/

[124] Petrova NN, Lugovskaia LV. Clinical and functional characteristics of remission and rehabilitation of patients with schizophrenia. Neurology Bulletin. 2020;LII(2):33–39. (In Russ). doi: 10.17816/nb34054

[125] Bjornestad J, Joa I, Larsen TK, et al. “Everyone needs a friend sometimes” ― social predictors of long-term remission in first episode psychosis. Front Psychol. 2016;(7):1491. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01491

[126] Valencia M, Fresán A, Barak Y, Juárez F, Escamilla R, Saracco R. Predicting functional remission in patients with schizophrenia: a cross-sectional study of symptomatic remission, psychosocial remission, functioning, and clinical outcome. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015;11:2339–2348. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S87335

[127] Potapov AV. Standardized clinical and functional criteria for therapeutic remission in schizophrenia (population, pharmacoepidemiological and pharmacotherapeutic study). Dissertation. Moscow; 2010. (In Russ). https://search.rsl.ru/ru/record/01004605869

[128] Snezhnevsky AV. Schizophrenia: Clinic and pathogenesis. Moscow: Meditsina; 1969:29–119. (In Russ).

[129] Snezhnevsky AV. Schizophrenia: a series of lectures 1964. Moscow: MAKS-Press; 2008. (In Russ).

[130] Romasenko VA. Hypertoxic schizophrenia. Moscow: Meditsina; 1967. (In Russ).

[131] Tiganov AS. Febrile schizophrenia: clinic, pathogenesis, treatment. Moscow: Meditsina; 1982. (In Russ).

[132] Ermosina LA. Febrile states in paroxysmal-progressive schizophrenia. Neurol Psychiatry. 1971;(5):176–181. (In Russ).

[133] Bleuler E. Dementia praecox, oder Gruppeder Schizophrenien. Leipzig und Wien: Deuticke; 1911. (In Deutsch).

[134] Snezhnevsky AV, Najarov RA, Smuleviched AB, ed. Handbook of psychiatry. 2nd ed. Moscow: Meditsina; 1985:333–355. (In Russ).

[135] Smulevich AB. Low-grade schizophrenia and borderline states. Moscow: MedPress-inform; 2019:304. (In Russ).

[136] Smulevich AB, Dubnitskaya EB, Lobanova VM, et al. Personality disorders and schizophrenic defect (problem of comorbidity). J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakov. 2018;118(11):4–14. doi: 10.17116/jnevro20181181114

[137] Linscott RJ, Allardyce J, van Os J. Seeking verisimilitude in a class: a systematic review of evidence that the criterial clinical symptoms of schizophrenia are taxonic. Schizophr Bull. 2010;36(4):811–829. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbn181

[138] Cuthbert BN. Dimensional models of psychopathology: research agenda and clinical utility. J Abnorm Psychol. 2005;114(4):565–569. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.565

[139] Cuthbert BN. The RDoC framework: facilitating transition from ICD/DSM to dimensional approaches that integrate neuroscience and psychopathology. World Psychiatry. 2014;13(1):28–35. doi: 10.1002/wps.20087

[140] Kronfeld AS. Problems of syndromology and nosology in modern psychiatry. Proceedings of the P.B. Gannushkin Institute. 1996;(5):5–147. (In Russ).

[141] Bekhtereva NP. The magic of the brain and the labyrinths of life. Saint Petersburg: Sova; 2019. (In Russ).

[142] Martines-Konde S, Meknik S. The brain is in focus. World of Science. 2009;(3):42–49. (In Russ).

[143] Kandel ER. A new intellectual framework for psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(4):457–469. doi: 10.1176/ajp.155.4.457

[144] Pickersgill MD. Debating DSM-5: diagnosis and the sociology of critique. J Med Ethics. 2014;40(8):521–525. doi: 10.1136/medethics-2013-101762

[145] Kasyanov E. Renaming schizophrenia. October 27, 2017. https://sch.psychiatr.ru/news/704

[146] Möller H. Development of DSM-V and ICD-11: Tendencies and potential of new classifications in psychiatry at the current state of knowledge. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009;63(5):595–612.

[147] Read J, Mosher LR, Bentall RP, ed. Models of madness: psychological, social and biological approaches to schizophrenia. Published 2 August, 2004. doi: 10.4324/9780203420393

[148] Freedman R, Lewis DA, Michels R, et al. The initial field trials of DSM-5: new blooms and old thorns. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(1):1–5. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12091189

[149] Foucault M. Maladie mentale et personnalite. Paris: Presses universitaires de France; 1954. (In France).

[150] Laing RD. The Self and Others. London: Tavistock Publications; 1961.

[151] Sass LA. Self and world in schizophrenia: three classic approaches. Philosophy Psychiatry Psychology. 2001;8(4):251–270. doi: 10.1353/ppp.2002.0026

[152] Suatbaev NR. Psychiatry social or manipulative? Independent Psychiatric J. 2006;(2):22–27. (In Russ).

[153] Smulevich AB, Vartanjan ME, Zavidovskaja GI, Rumyantseva GM. Some problems of pathomorphosis of schizophrenia associated with the use of psychotropic drugs. Herald AMN SSSR. 1971;(5):79–85. (In Russ).

[154] Smulevich AB. Schizophrenia or a group of endogenous diseases? The past and the present. J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakova. 2015;115(8):4–12. (In Russ). doi: 10.17116/jnevro2015115814-12

[155] Muchnik PY, Snedkov EV. The study of differential diagnosis of endogenous mental disorders in hospital practice. Rev Psychiatry Med Psychol. 2013;(2):32–36. (In Russ).

[156] Bobrov AS, Chuyurova ON, Rozhkova NY. Bipolar depression in the schizophrenia clinic. J Neurol Psychiatrist Named After S.S. Korsakova. 2014;114(7):9–16. (In Russ).

[157] Usyukina MV, Shakhbazi TA, Ushakova IM. On differential diagnosis of epileptic and endogenous psychoses. Practice Forensic Psychiatric Examination. 2010;(48):14–24. (In Russ).

[158] Nenasteva A. Psychometric scales used in modern clinical addiction medicine. Issues Narcol. 2018;7(16):46–71. (In Russ).

[159] Shamrey VK, Marchenko AA, Nechiporenko VV, ed. Psychiatry: Textbook for medical universities. Saint Petersburg: SpetsLit; 2019. (In Russ).

[160] Nordgaard J, Revsbech R, Saebye D, Parnas J. Assessing the diagnostic validity of a structured psychiatric interview in a first-admission hospital sample. World Psychiatry. 2012;11(3):181–185. doi: 10.1002/j.2051-5545.2012.tb00128.x

[161] Sanchez-Villegas A, Schlatter J, Ortuno F, et al. Validity of a self-reported diagnosis of depression among participants in a cohort study using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-I). BMC Psychiatry. 2008;8(1):1–8.

[162] Lomovatsky LE. Dissimulation options in patients with paranoid schizophrenia, their diagnosis and forensic psychiatric evaluation. Dissertation. Moscow; 1982.

[163] Hofman AG, Schlemina IV, Loshakov ES, Malkov KD. Sluggish schizophrenia: schizotypical disorder combined with alcohol addiction. Independent Psychiatric J. 2009;(1):21–25. (In Russ). doi: 10.1186/1471-244x-843

[164] Aleksandrovskii YA, Neznanov NG, ed. Psychiatry: a national guide. Moscow: GEOTAR-Media; 2018. (In Russ).

[165] Vinnikova IN, Oskolkova SN, et al. Modern approaches to the problem of schizophrenic psychoses due to the use of stimulants. Mental Health. 2020;(10):54–64. (In Russ).

[166] Alexandrovsky YA, ed. Combined mental disorders of various genesis in forensic psychiatric practice. Moscow: National Medical Research Center of Psychiatry and Neurology named after Serbian; 1991:33–37. (In Russ).

[167] Sivolap YP, Yanushkevich MV, Savchenkov VA. The dual diagnosis: schizophrenia and substance abuse. Neurological Bulletin. 2017;49(2):57–60. (In Russ).

[168] Ezhkova EV. The syndrome of dependence on surfactants in patients with comorbid pathology of the schizophrenic spectrum: clinical and dynamic features, therapeutic approaches. Dissertation. Moscow; 2021. (In Russ).

[169] Muchnik PY. Prichiny I sledstviya oshibok differentsialnoi diagnostiki v psikhiatricheskom statsionare. Synopsis of Phd thesis in Russian. North West Stale Medical University named after I.I. Mechnikov. 2019.

[170] Ivanets N, Vinnikova M, Ezhkova E, Titkov M, Bulatova R. Clinical presentations and therapy of polysubstance dependence in patients with schizophrenia. J Neurology Psychiatry named after S.S. Korsakov. 2021;121(4):63–69. (In Russ). doi: 10.17116/jnevro202112104163280

[171] Dvirskii AA, Ivanikov NV, Babanin VL. Alcohol disorders in patients with schizophrenia. J Neurology Psychiatry named after S.S. Korsakov. 2006;(5):34–38. (In Russ). 171.

[172] Klimenko TV. Osnovnye zakonomernosti razvitija shizophrenii pri ee sochetanii s narkomaniej. In: Aleksandrivskii YuA. Et al., ed. Sochetannue psihicheskie rasstrojstva razlichnogo geneza v sudebno-psihiatricheskoj praktike. Book in Russian. V. Serbsky National Medical Research Centre of Psychiatry and Narcology. 1991: 33-37.

[173] Elkin SP. The influence of exogenous factors on the recovery and course of paranoid schizophrenia. In: Schizophrenia disorders of the schizophrenic spectrum. 1999:263–265.

[174] Lebedeva NS. Outcomes of acute atypical psychoses in the process of compulsory treatment. Russian Psychiatric Journal. 2003;(1):24–26. (In Russ).

[175] Shmilovich AA. Psychoses of the schizophrenic spectrum associated with stress. Dissertation. Moscow; 2013.

[176] Felinskaya NI. On the role of psychogenic factor in the development of schizophrenia. In: Morozov GV, eds. Problems of the clinic, forensic psychiatric examination, pathophysiology and immunology of schizophrenia. Collection of articles, Issue XV(3). Moscow; 1964:214–226. (In Russ).

[177] Pelipas VE. ed. Simulation of mental disorders and its recognition during forensic psychiatric examination: Method. recommendations. Moscow; 1983. (In Russ).

[178] Vasilevsky VK, Pechenkina OH. Cases of erroneous diagnosis of schizophrenia in a psychopathic personality. Practice of Forensic Psychiatric Examination. 2000;(38):83–93. (In Russ).

[179] Shepeleva II, Chernysheva AA, Kiryanova EM, Salnikova LI, Gurina OI. COVID-19: nervous system damage and psychological and psychiatric complications. Social and Clinical Psychiatry. 2020;30(4):76–82. (In Russ).

[180] Shumsky NG. Diagnostic errors in forensic psychiatric practice. Humanitarian Agency “Akademicheskii proekt”; 1997. (In Russ).

[181] Yakovleva MV. Clinical pathomorphosis of schizophrenia in the ethno-cultural aspect. Dissertation. Moscow; 2011. (In Russ).

[182] Yudin BG, Tishchenko PD, Ivanyushkin AYa, Ignatiev VN, Korotkov RV, Siluyanova IV. Introduction to Bioethics: study guide. Moscow: Progress-Traditsiya; 1998. (In Russ).

[183] Kassirskii IA. About healing: problems and thoughts. Moscow: Meditsina; 1970. (In Russ).

[184] Abramov VA, Tabachnikov SI, Podkorytov VS. Fundamentals of high-quality psychiatric practice. Donetsk: Kashtan; 2004. (In Russ).

[185] Savenko YuS. Error analysis as the necessary line of research in psychiatry. Independent Psychiatric Journal. 2016;(2):7–10. (In Russ).

[186] Kirkbridge J. Migration and Psychosis: our smoking lung7 World Psychiatry. 2017; 16 (2): 119-120.

[187] Boydell J., van Os J., McKenzic K et al. Incidence of Schizophrenia in ethnic minorities in Londin: ecological study into intractions with environment. BMY 2001; 323 (7325): 336-1336. .

[188] Skodlar B, Dernovsek MZ, Kocmur M. Psychopathology of schizophrenia in Ljubljana (Slovenia) from 1881 to 2000: changes in the content of delusions in schizophrenia patients related to various sociopolitical, technical and scientific changes. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2008;54(2):101–111. doi: 10.1177/0020764007083875

[189] Oskolkov PV. Essays on ethnopolitology. Moscow: Aspekt Press; 2021. (In Russ).

[190] Oliva F, Dalmotto M, Pirfo E, Furlan PM, Picci RL. A comparison of thought and perception disorders in borderline personality disorder and schizophrenia: psychotic experiences as a reaction to impaired social functioning. BMC Psychiatry. 2014;14:239. doi: 10.1186/s12888-014-0239-2

[191] Abbs B, Achalia RM, Adelufosi AO, et al. The 3rd Schizophrenia International Research Society Conference, 14–18 April 2012, Florence, Italy: summaries of oral sessions. Schizophr Res. 2012;141(1):e1–e24. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.07.024

[192] Lebedeva IS, Akhadov TA, Semenova NA, Barkhatova A, Kaleda V. Towards multidisciplinary synthesis in psychiatry: neuroimaging methods. In: Zvereva NV, Roshhina IF, ed. Medical (clinical) psychology: Traditions and prospects (For the 85th anniversary of Yuri Fedorovich Polyakov). Moscow; 2013:229–236.

[193] Kannabikh YuV. History of psychiatry. Moscow: Medgiz; 1929. (In Russ).

[194] van Voren R. Political abuse of psychiatry--an historical overview. Schizophr Bull. 2010;36(1):33–35. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbp119

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Oskolkova S.N.