Enthesitis-related arthritis in children: A literature review of the clinical features and differential diagnosis

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Enthesitis-related arthritis is one of the subtypes of juvenile idiopathic arthritis and is characterized by the involvement of the joints, enthesitis, and axial skeleton (sacroiliitis and spondylitis). The clinical variability of enthesitis-related arthritis and similar manifestations with orthopedic diseases present difficulties in diagnosis.

AIM: To present the clinical features of enthesitis-related arthritis and issues of differential diagnosis based on literature analysis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: A literature search was conducted in the open electronic databases of eLibrary, PubMed, and Cochrane Library. In total, 46 foreign and 4 Russian publications were analyzed, which were limited to 1981–2021. The keywords used in the literature search were as follows: enthesitis, enthesitis-related arthritis, juvenile spondyloarthritis, and SAPHO syndrome. Own archive data for instrumental investigations were used in the article.

RESULTS: The clinical manifestations can be variable, and laboratory tests do not always allow us to prove the inflammatory nature of the pain syndrome. The most priority diagnostic tests were imaging methods, namely, magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography. The greatest diagnostic difficulty was found in patients in whom enthesitis prevailed over arthritis, and in some cases, it was the only disease manifestation. The classification criteria used for the diagnosis of EAA were considered. The differential diagnosis of enthesitis included various orthopedic diseases. Ultrasound diagnostics of joints and enthesis should be performed in every patient with local pain musculoskeletal symptoms, which allows patients to be correctly routed.

CONCLUSIONS: The alertness of both orthopedists in relation to enthesitis-related arthritis and the awareness of rheumatologists of the most common orthopedic diseases that affect the entheses are necessary.

Keywords

enthesitis-related arthritis / juvenile spondyloarthritis / SAPHO syndrome / osteochondropathies / enthesopathy

References

[1] Villotte S, Knüsel CJ. Understanding entheseal changes: definition and life course changes. Int J Osteoarchaeology. 2012;23(2):135–146. DOI: 10.1002/oa.2289

[2] Villotte S., Knüsel C.J. Understanding entheseal changes: definition and life course changes // Int. J. Osteoarchaeology. 2012. Vol. 23. No. 2. P. 135–146. DOI: 10.1002/oa.2289

[3] Villotte S, Knüsel CJ. Understanding entheseal changes: definition and life course changes. Int J Osteoarchaeology. 2012;23(2):135–146. DOI: 10.1002/oa.2289

[4] Textbook of pediatric rheumatology. Ed. by R.E. Petty, R.M. Laxer, C.B. Lindsley et al. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2015.

[5] Textbook of pediatric rheumatology. Ed. by R.E. Petty, R.M. Laxer, C.B. Lindsley, et al. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2015.

[6] Textbook of pediatric rheumatology. Ed. by R.E. Petty, R.M. Laxer, C.B. Lindsley et al. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2015.

[7] Benjamin M, McGonagle D. The anatomical basis for disease localisation in seronegative spondyloarthropathy at entheses and related sites. J Anat. 2001;199:503–526. DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19950503.x

[8] Benjamin M., McGonagle D. The anatomical basis for disease localization in seronegative spondyloarthropathy at entheses and related sites // J. Anat. 2001. Vol. 199. P. 503–526. DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19950503.x

[9] Benjamin M, McGonagle D. The anatomical basis for disease localisation in seronegative spondyloarthropathy at entheses and related sites. J Anat. 2001;199:503–526. DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19950503.x

[10] Cormick W. Enthesopathy – a personal perspective on its manifestations, implications and treatment. Australas J Ultrasound Med. 2010;13(4):19–23. DOI: 10.1002/j.2205-0140.2010.tb00174.x

[11] Cormick W. Enthesopathy – a personal perspective on its manifestations, implications and treatment // Australas J. Ultrasound. Med. 2010. Vol. 13. No. 4, P. 19–23. DOI: 10.1002/j.2205-0140.2010.tb00174.x

[12] Cormick W. Enthesopathy – a personal perspective on its manifestations, implications and treatment. Australas J Ultrasound Med. 2010;13(4):19–23. DOI: 10.1002/j.2205-0140.2010.tb00174.x

[13] Benjamin M, Moriggl B, Brenner E, et al. The “enthesis organ” concept: why enthesopathies may not present as focal insertional disorders. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50(10):3306–3313. DOI: 10.1002/art.20566

[14] Benjamin M., Moriggl B., Brenner E., et al. The “enthesis organ” concept: why enthesopathies may not present as focal insertional disorders // Arthritis Rheum. 2004. Vol. 50. No. 10. P. 3306–3313. DOI: 10.1002/art.20566

[15] Benjamin M, Moriggl B, Brenner E, et al. The “enthesis organ” concept: why enthesopathies may not present as focal insertional disorders. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50(10):3306–3313. DOI: 10.1002/art.20566

[16] Kehl AS, Corr M, Weisman MH. Review: Enthesitis: new insights into pathogenesis, diagnostic modalities, and treatment. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2016;68(2):312–322. DOI: 10.1002/art.39458

[17] Kehl A.S., Corr M., Weisman M.H. Review: enthesitis: new insights into pathogenesis, diagnostic modalities, and treatment // Arthritis Rheum. 2016. Vol. 68. No. 2. P. 312–322. DOI: 10.1002/art.39458

[18] Kehl AS, Corr M, Weisman MH. Review: Enthesitis: new insights into pathogenesis, diagnostic modalities, and treatment. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2016;68(2):312–322. DOI: 10.1002/art.39458

[19] Russell T, Bridgewood C, Rowe H, et al. Cytokine “fine tuning” of enthesis tissue homeostasis as a pointer to spondyloarthritis pathogenesis with a focus on relevant TNF and IL-17 targeted therapies. Semin Immunopathol. 2021;43(2):193–206. DOI: 10.1007/s00281-021-00836-1

[20] Russell T., Bridgewood C., Rowe H., et al. Cytokine “fine tuning” of enthesis tissue homeostasis as a pointer to spondyloarthritis pathogenesis with a focus on relevant TNF and IL-17 targeted therapies // Semin. Immunopathol. 2021. Vol. 43. No. 2. P. 193–206. DOI: 10.1007/s00281-021-00836-1

[21] Russell T, Bridgewood C, Rowe H, et al. Cytokine “fine tuning” of enthesis tissue homeostasis as a pointer to spondyloarthritis pathogenesis with a focus on relevant TNF and IL-17 targeted therapies. Semin Immunopathol. 2021;43(2):193–206. DOI: 10.1007/s00281-021-00836-1

[22] Millar NL, Hueber AJ, Reilly JH, et al. Inflammation is present in early human tendinopathy. Am J Sports Med. 2010;38(10):2085–2091. DOI: 10.1177/0363546510372613

[23] Millar N.L., Hueber A.J., Reilly J.H., et al. Inflammation is present in early human tendinopathy // Am. J. Sports Med. 2010. Vol. 38. No. 10. P. 2085–2091. DOI: 10.1177/0363546510372613

[24] Millar NL, Hueber AJ, Reilly JH, et al. Inflammation is present in early human tendinopathy. Am J Sports Med. 2010;38(10):2085–2091. DOI: 10.1177/0363546510372613

[25] Petty RE, Southwood TR, Manners P, et al. International League of Associations for Rheumatology classification of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: second revision, Edmonton, 2001. J Rheumatol. 2004;31(2):390–392.

[26] Petty R.E., Southwood T.R., Manners P., et al. International League of Associations for Rheumatology classification of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: second revision, Edmonton, 2001 // J. Rheumatol. 2004. Vol. 31. No. 2. P. 390–392.

[27] Petty RE, Southwood TR, Manners P, et al. International League of Associations for Rheumatology classification of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: second revision, Edmonton, 2001. J Rheumatol. 2004;31(2):390–392.

[28] Sudoł-Szopińska I, Eshed I, Jans L, et al. Classifications and imaging of juvenile spondyloarthritis. J Ultrason. 2018;18(74):224–233. DOI: 10.15557/JoU.2018.0033

[29] Sudoł-Szopińska I., Eshed I., Jans L., et al. Classifications and imaging of juvenile spondyloarthritis // J. Ultrason. 2018. Vol. 18. No. 74P. 224–233. DOI: 10.15557/JoU.2018.0033

[30] Sudoł-Szopińska I, Eshed I, Jans L, et al. Classifications and imaging of juvenile spondyloarthritis. J Ultrason. 2018;18(74):224–233. DOI: 10.15557/JoU.2018.0033

[31] Rumsey DG, Laxer RM. The challenges and opportunities of classifying childhood arthritis. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2020;22(1). DOI: 10.1007/s11926-020-0880-3

[32] Rumsey D.G., Laxer R.M. The challenges and opportunities of classifying childhood arthritis // Curr. Rheumatol. Rep. 2020. Vol. 22. No. 1. DOI: 10.1007/s11926-020-0880-3

[33] Rumsey DG, Laxer RM. The challenges and opportunities of classifying childhood arthritis. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2020;22(1). DOI: 10.1007/s11926-020-0880-3

[34] Ringold S, Angeles-Han ST, Beukelman T, et al. 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation Guideline for the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: therapeutic approaches for non-systemic polyarthritis, sacroiliitis, and enthesitis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2019;71(6):717–734. DOI: 10.1002/acr.23870

[35] Ringold S., Angeles-Han S.T., Beukelman T., et al. 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation Guideline for the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: therapeutic approaches for non-systemic polyarthritis, sacroiliitis, and enthesitis // Arthritis. Care Res (Hoboken). 2019. Vol. 71. No. 6. P. 717–734. DOI: 10.1002/acr.23870

[36] Ringold S, Angeles-Han ST, Beukelman T, et al. 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation Guideline for the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: therapeutic approaches for non-systemic polyarthritis, sacroiliitis, and enthesitis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2019;71(6):717–734. DOI: 10.1002/acr.23870

[37] Ramanathan A, Srinivasalu H, Colbert RA. Update on juvenile spondyloarthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2013;39(4):767–788. DOI: 10.1016/j.rdc.2013.06.002

[38] Ramanathan A., Srinivasalu H., Colbert R.A. Update on juvenile spondyloarthritis // Rheum. Dis. Clin. North. Am. 2013. Vol. 39. No. 4. P. 767–788. DOI: 10.1016/j.rdc.2013.06.002

[39] Ramanathan A, Srinivasalu H, Colbert RA. Update on juvenile spondyloarthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2013;39(4):767–788. DOI: 10.1016/j.rdc.2013.06.002

[40] Chen HA, Chen CH, Liao HT, et al. Clinical, functional, and radiographic differences among juvenile-onset, adult-onset, and late-onset ankylosing spondylitis. J Rheumatol. 2012;39(5):1013–1018. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.111031

[41] Chen H.A., Chen C.H., Liao H.T., et al. Clinical, functional, and radiographic differences among juvenile-onset, adult-onset, and late-onset ankylosing spondylitis // J. Rheumatol. 2012. Vol. 39. No. 5. P. 1013–1018. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.111031

[42] Chen HA, Chen CH, Liao HT, et al. Clinical, functional, and radiographic differences among juvenile-onset, adult-onset, and late-onset ankylosing spondylitis. J Rheumatol. 2012;39(5):1013–1018. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.111031

[43] Stoll ML, Bhore R, Dempsey-Robertson M, et al. Spondyloarthritis in a pediatric population: risk factors for sacroiliitis. J Rheumatol. 2010;37(11):2402–2408. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.100014

[44] Stoll M.L., Bhore R., Dempsey-Robertson M., et al. Spondyloarthritis in a pediatric population: risk factors for sacroiliitis // J. Rheumatol. 2010. Vol. 37. No. 11. P. 2402–2408. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.100014

[45] Stoll ML, Bhore R, Dempsey-Robertson M, et al. Spondyloarthritis in a pediatric population: risk factors for sacroiliitis. J Rheumatol. 2010;37(11):2402–2408. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.100014

[46] Weiss PF, Xiao R, Biko DM, et al. Assessment of sacroiliitis at diagnosis of juvenile spondyloarthritis by radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, and clinical examination. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2016;68(2):187–194. DOI: 10.1002/acr.22665

[47] Weiss P.F., Xiao R., Biko D.M., et al. Assessment of sacroiliitis at diagnosis of juvenile spondyloarthritis by radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, and clinical examination // Arthritis. Care Res. (Hoboken). 2016. Vol. 68. No. 2. P. 187–194. DOI: 10.1002/acr.22665

[48] Weiss PF, Xiao R, Biko DM, et al. Assessment of sacroiliitis at diagnosis of juvenile spondyloarthritis by radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, and clinical examination. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2016;68(2):187–194. DOI: 10.1002/acr.22665

[49] Sorokina LS, Avrusin IS, Raupov RK, et al. Hip Involvement in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a roadmap from arthritis to total hip arthroplasty or how can we prevent hip damage? Front Pediatr. 2021;9. DOI: 10.3389/fped.2021.747779

[50] Sorokina L.S., Avrusin I.S., Raupov R.K., et al. Hip involvement in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a roadmap from arthritis to total hip arthroplasty or how can we prevent hip damage? // Front. Pediatr. 2021. Vol. 9. DOI: 10.3389/fped.2021.747779

[51] Sorokina LS, Avrusin IS, Raupov RK, et al. Hip Involvement in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a roadmap from arthritis to total hip arthroplasty or how can we prevent hip damage? Front Pediatr. 2021;9. DOI: 10.3389/fped.2021.747779

[52] Martini A. It is time to rethink juvenile idiopathic arthritis classification and nomenclature. Ann Rheum Dis. 2012;71(9):1437–1439. DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-201388

[53] Martini A. It is time to rethink juvenile idiopathic arthritis classification and nomenclature // Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2012. Vol. 71. No. 9. P. 1437–1439. DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-201388

[54] Martini A. It is time to rethink juvenile idiopathic arthritis classification and nomenclature. Ann Rheum Dis. 2012;71(9):1437–1439. DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-201388

[55] Walscheid K, Glandorf K, Rothaus K, et al. Enthesitis-related arthritis: prevalence and complications of associated uveitis in children and adolescents from a population-based nationwide study in Germany. J Rheumatol. 2021;48(2):262–269. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.191085

[56] Walscheid K., Glandorf K., Rothaus K., et al. Enthesitis-related arthritis: prevalence and complications of associated uveitis in children and adolescents from a population-based nationwide study in Germany // J. Rheumatol. 2021. Vol. 48. No. 2. P. 262–269. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.191085

[57] Walscheid K, Glandorf K, Rothaus K, et al. Enthesitis-related arthritis: prevalence and complications of associated uveitis in children and adolescents from a population-based nationwide study in Germany. J Rheumatol. 2021;48(2):262–269. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.191085

[58] Gandjbakhch F, Terslev L, Joshua F, et al. Ultrasound in the evaluation of enthesitis: status and perspectives. Arthritis Res Ther. 2011;13(6). DOI: 10.1186/ar3516

[59] Gandjbakhch F., Terslev L., Joshua F., et al. Ultrasound in the evaluation of enthesitis: status and perspectives // Arthritis Res. Ther. 2011. Vol. 13. No. 6. DOI: 10.1186/ar3516

[60] Gandjbakhch F, Terslev L, Joshua F, et al. Ultrasound in the evaluation of enthesitis: status and perspectives. Arthritis Res Ther. 2011;13(6). DOI: 10.1186/ar3516

[61] Balint PV, Kane D, Wilson H, et al. Ultrasonography of entheseal insertions in the lower limb in spondyloarthropathy. Ann Rheum Dis. 2002,61,905–910.

[62] Balint P.V., Kane D., Wilson H., et al. Ultrasonography of entheseal insertions in the lower limb in spondyloarthropathy // Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2002. Vol. 61. No. 10. P. 905–910.

[63] Balint PV, Kane D, Wilson H, et al. Ultrasonography of entheseal insertions in the lower limb in spondyloarthropathy. Ann Rheum Dis. 2002,61,905–910.

[64] Eder L, Jayakar J, Thavaneswaran A, et al. Is the MAdrid Sonographic Enthesitis Index useful for differentiating psoriatic arthritis from psoriasis alone and healthy controls? J Rheumatol. 2014;41(3):466–472. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.130949

[65] Eder L., Jayakar J., Thavaneswaran A., et al. Is the MAdrid Sonographic Enthesitis Index useful for differentiating psoriatic arthritis from psoriasis alone and healthy controls? // J. Rheumatol. 2014. Vol. 41. No. 3. P. 466–472. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.130949

[66] Eder L, Jayakar J, Thavaneswaran A, et al. Is the MAdrid Sonographic Enthesitis Index useful for differentiating psoriatic arthritis from psoriasis alone and healthy controls? J Rheumatol. 2014;41(3):466–472. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.130949

[67] Akhadov TA, Mitish VA, Bozhko OV, et al. Possibilities of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of acute aseptic sacroilitis in children. Diagnostic radiology and radiotherapy. 2022;13(2):72–80. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.22328/2079-5343-2022-13-2-72-80

[68] Ахадов Т.А., Митиш В.А., Божко О.В., и др. Возможности магнитно-резонансной томографии в диагностике острого асептического сакроилиита у детей // Лучевая диагностика и терапия. 2022. Вып. 13. № 2. С. 72–80. DOI: 10.22328/2079-5343-2022-13-2-72-80

[69] Akhadov TA, Mitish VA, Bozhko OV, et al. Possibilities of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of acute aseptic sacroilitis in children. Diagnostic radiology and radiotherapy. 2022;13(2):72–80. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.22328/2079-5343-2022-13-2-72-80

[70] Rudwaleit M, van der Heijde D, Landewé R, et al. The development of Assessment of SpondyloArthritis international Society classification criteria for axial spondyloarthritis (part II): validation and final selection. Ann Rheum Dis. 2009;68(6):777–783. DOI: 10.1136/ard.2009.108233

[71] Rudwaleit M., van der Heijde D., Landewé R., et al. The development of Assessment of SpondyloArthritis international Society classification criteria for axial spondyloarthritis (part II): validation and final selection // Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2009. Vol. 68. No. 6. P. 777–783. DOI: 10.1136/ard.2009.108233

[72] Rudwaleit M, van der Heijde D, Landewé R, et al. The development of Assessment of SpondyloArthritis international Society classification criteria for axial spondyloarthritis (part II): validation and final selection. Ann Rheum Dis. 2009;68(6):777–783. DOI: 10.1136/ard.2009.108233

[73] Herregods N, Dehoorne J, Van den Bosch F, et al. ASAS definition for sacroiliitis on MRI in SpA: applicable to children? Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2017;15(1). DOI: 10.1186/s12969-017-0159-z

[74] Herregods N., Dehoorne J., Van den Bosch F., et al. ASAS definition for sacroiliitis on MRI in SpA: applicable to children? // Pediatr. Rheumatol. Online J. 2017. Vol. 15. No. 1. DOI: 10.1186/s12969-017-0159-z

[75] Herregods N, Dehoorne J, Van den Bosch F, et al. ASAS definition for sacroiliitis on MRI in SpA: applicable to children? Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2017;15(1). DOI: 10.1186/s12969-017-0159-z

[76] Greer MC. Whole-body magnetic resonance imaging: techniques and non-oncologic indications. Pediatr Radiol. 2018;48(9):1348–1363. DOI: 10.1007/s00247-018-4141-9

[77] Greer M.C. Whole-body magnetic resonance imaging: techniques and non-oncologic indications // Pediatr. Radiol. 2018. Vol. 48. No. 9. P. 1348–1363. DOI: 10.1007/s00247-018-4141-9

[78] Greer MC. Whole-body magnetic resonance imaging: techniques and non-oncologic indications. Pediatr Radiol. 2018;48(9):1348–1363. DOI: 10.1007/s00247-018-4141-9

[79] Cheng W, Li F, Tian J, et al. New Insights in the Treatment of SAPHO syndrome and medication recommendations. J Inflamm Res. 2022;15:2365–2380. DOI: 10.2147/JIR.S353539

[80] Cheng W., Li F., Tian J., et al. New insights in the treatment of SAPHO syndrome and medication recommendations // J. Inflamm. Res. 2022. Vol. 15. P. 2365–2380. DOI: 10.2147/JIR.S353539

[81] Cheng W, Li F, Tian J, et al. New Insights in the Treatment of SAPHO syndrome and medication recommendations. J Inflamm Res. 2022;15:2365–2380. DOI: 10.2147/JIR.S353539

[82] Nguyen MT, Borchers A, Selmi C, et al. The SAPHO syndrome. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2012;42(3):254–265. DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2012.05.006

[83] Nguyen M.T., Borchers A., Selmi C., et al. The SAPHO syndrome // Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 2012. Vol. 42. No. 3. P. 254–265. DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2012.05.006

[84] Nguyen MT, Borchers A, Selmi C, et al. The SAPHO syndrome. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2012;42(3):254–265. DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2012.05.006

[85] Aljuhani F, Tournadre A, Tatar Z, et al. The SAPHO syndrome: a single-center study of 41 adult patients. J Rheumatol. 2015;42(2):329–334. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.140342

[86] Aljuhani F., Tournadre A., Tatar Z., et al. The SAPHO syndrome: a single-center study of 41 adult patients // J. Rheumatol. 2015. Vol. 42. No. 2. P. 329–334. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.140342

[87] Aljuhani F, Tournadre A, Tatar Z, et al. The SAPHO syndrome: a single-center study of 41 adult patients. J Rheumatol. 2015;42(2):329–334. DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.140342

[88] Sonozaki H, Mitsui H, Miyanaga Y, et al. Clinical features of 53 cases with pustulotic arthro-osteitis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1981;40(6):547–553. DOI: 10.1136/ard.40.6.547

[89] Sonozaki H., Mitsui H., Miyanaga Y., et al. Clinical features of 53 cases with pustulotic arthro-osteitis // Ann Rheum Dis. 1981. Vol. 40. No. 6. P. 547–553. DOI: 10.1136/ard.40.6.547

[90] Sonozaki H, Mitsui H, Miyanaga Y, et al. Clinical features of 53 cases with pustulotic arthro-osteitis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1981;40(6):547–553. DOI: 10.1136/ard.40.6.547

[91] Earwaker JW, Cotten A. SAPHO: syndrome or concept? Imaging findings. Skeletal Radiol. 2003;32(6):311–327. DOI: 10.1007/s00256-003-0629-x

[92] Earwaker J.W., Cotten A. SAPHO: syndrome or concept? Imaging findings // Skeletal Radiol. 2003. Vol. 32. No. 6. P. 311–327. DOI: 10.1007/s00256-003-0629-x

[93] Earwaker JW, Cotten A. SAPHO: syndrome or concept? Imaging findings. Skeletal Radiol. 2003;32(6):311–327. DOI: 10.1007/s00256-003-0629-x

[94] Cotten A, Flipo RM, Mentre A, et al. SAPHO syndrome. Radiographics. 1995;15(5):1147–1154. DOI: 10.1148/radiographics.15.5.7501856

[95] Cotten A., Flipo R.M., Mentre A., et al. SAPHO syndrome // Radiographics. 1995. Vol. 15. No. 5. P. 1147–1154. DOI: 10.1148/radiographics.15.5.7501856

[96] Cotten A, Flipo RM, Mentre A, et al. SAPHO syndrome. Radiographics. 1995;15(5):1147–1154. DOI: 10.1148/radiographics.15.5.7501856

[97] Depasquale R, Kumar N, Lalam RK, et al. SAPHO: What radiologists should know. Clin Radiol. 2012;67(3):195–206. DOI: 10.1016/j.crad.2011.08.014

[98] Depasquale R., Kumar N., Lalam R.K., et al. SAPHO: What radiologists should know // Clin. Radiol. 2012. Vol. 67. No. 3. P. 195–206. DOI: 10.1016/j.crad.2011.08.014

[99] Depasquale R, Kumar N, Lalam RK, et al. SAPHO: What radiologists should know. Clin Radiol. 2012;67(3):195–206. DOI: 10.1016/j.crad.2011.08.014

[100] Laredo JD, Vuillemin-Bodaghi V, Boutry N, et al. SAPHO syndrome: MR appearance of vertebral involvement. Radiology. 2007;242(3):825–831. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2423051222

[101] Laredo J.D., Vuillemin-Bodaghi V., Boutry N., et al. SAPHO syndrome: MR appearance of vertebral involvement // Radiology. 2007. Vol. 242. No. 3. P. 825–831. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2423051222

[102] Laredo JD, Vuillemin-Bodaghi V, Boutry N, et al. SAPHO syndrome: MR appearance of vertebral involvement. Radiology. 2007;242(3):825–831. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2423051222

[103] Toussirot E, Dupond JL, Wendling D. Spondylodiscitis in SAPHO syndrome. A series of eight cases. Ann Rheum Dis. 1997;56(1):52–58. DOI: 10.1136/ard.56.1.52

[104] Toussirot E., Dupond J.L., Wendling D. Spondylodiscitis in SAPHO syndrome. A series of eight cases // Ann. Rheum. Dis. 1997. Vol. 56. No. 1. P. 52–58. DOI: 10.1136/ard.56.1.52

[105] Toussirot E, Dupond JL, Wendling D. Spondylodiscitis in SAPHO syndrome. A series of eight cases. Ann Rheum Dis. 1997;56(1):52–58. DOI: 10.1136/ard.56.1.52

[106] Egiazaryan KA, Grigoriev AV, Ratyev AP. Etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and principles of treatment of slipped capital femoral epiphysis. Literature review. Surgical practice. 2022;(1):38–46. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.38181/2223-2427-2022-1-38-46

[107] Егиазарян К.А., Григорьев А.В., Ратьев А.П. Этиология, патогенез, диагностика и принципы лечения юношеского эпифизеолиза головки бедренной кости. Обзор литературы // Хирургическая практика. 2022. № 1. С. 38–46. DOI: 10.38181/2223-2427-2022-1-38-46

[108] Egiazaryan KA, Grigoriev AV, Ratyev AP. Etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and principles of treatment of slipped capital femoral epiphysis. Literature review. Surgical practice. 2022;(1):38–46. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.38181/2223-2427-2022-1-38-46

[109] Kamosko MM, Poznovich MS. Radiological diagnosis of hip joint abnormalities in children. Pediatric Traumatology, Orthopaedics and Reconstructive Surgery. 2015;3(2):32–41. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.17816/PTORS3232-41

[110] Камоско М.М., Познович М.С. Методы лучевой диагностики патологии тазобедренного сустава у детей // Ортопедия, травматология и восстановительная хирургия детского возраста. 2015. Т. 3. № 2. C. 32–41. DOI: 10.17816/PTORS3232-41

[111] Kamosko MM, Poznovich MS. Radiological diagnosis of hip joint abnormalities in children. Pediatric Traumatology, Orthopaedics and Reconstructive Surgery. 2015;3(2):32–41. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.17816/PTORS3232-41

[112] Amarnath C, Muthaiyan P, Mary TH, et al. Idiopathic chondrolysis of hip in children: New proposal and implication for radiological staging. Indian J Radiol Imaging. 2018;28(2):205–213. DOI: 10.4103/ijri.IJRI_185_17

[113] Amarnath C., Muthaiyan P., Mary T.H., et al. Idiopathic chondrolysis of hip in children: New proposal and implication for radiological staging // Indian J. Radiol. Imaging. 2018. Vol. 28. No. 2. P. 205–213. DOI: 10.4103/ijri.IJRI_185_17

[114] Amarnath C, Muthaiyan P, Mary TH, et al. Idiopathic chondrolysis of hip in children: New proposal and implication for radiological staging. Indian J Radiol Imaging. 2018;28(2):205–213. DOI: 10.4103/ijri.IJRI_185_17

[115] Krutikova NYu, Vinogradova AG. Legg–Calve–Perthes disease. Current Pediatrics. 2015;14(5):548–552. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.15690/vsp.v14i5.1437

[116] Крутикова Н.Ю., Виноградова А.Г. Болезнь Легга – Кальве – Пертеса // Вопросы современной педиатрии. 2015. Т. 14. № 5. С. 548–552. DOI: 10.15690/vsp.v14i5.1437

[117] Krutikova NYu, Vinogradova AG. Legg–Calve–Perthes disease. Current Pediatrics. 2015;14(5):548–552. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.15690/vsp.v14i5.1437

[118] Valentino M, Quiligotti C, Ruggirello M. Sinding-Larsen-Johansson syndrome: a case report. J Ultrasound. 2012;15(2):127–129. DOI: 10.1016/j.jus.2012.03.001

[119] Valentino M., Quiligotti C., Ruggirello M. Sinding-Larsen-Johansson syndrome: a case report // J. Ultrasound. 2012. Vol. 15. No. 2. P. 127–129. DOI: 10.1016/j.jus.2012.03.001

[120] Valentino M, Quiligotti C, Ruggirello M. Sinding-Larsen-Johansson syndrome: a case report. J Ultrasound. 2012;15(2):127–129. DOI: 10.1016/j.jus.2012.03.001

[121] Gudi SM, Luchshev MD, Kuznetsov VV, et al. Freiberg-Köhler disease: clinical manifestations, diagnostics, and treatment (literature review). Genij Ortopedii. 2022;28(3):431–443. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.18019/1028-4427-2022-28-3-431-443

[122] Гуди С.М, Лучшев М.Д, Кузнецов В.В., и др. Болезнь Фрайберга – Келера: клиника, диагностика, лечение (обзор литературы) // Гений ортопедии. 2022. Т. 28. № 3. С. 431–443.

[123] Gudi SM, Luchshev MD, Kuznetsov VV, et al. Freiberg-Köhler disease: clinical manifestations, diagnostics, and treatment (literature review). Genij Ortopedii. 2022;28(3):431–443. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.18019/1028-4427-2022-28-3-431-443

[124] Borges JL, Guille JT, Bowen JR. Köhler’s bone disease of the tarsal navicular. J Pediatr Orthop. 1995;15(5):596–598. DOI: 10.1097/01241398-199509000-00009

[125] Borges J.L., Guille J.T., Bowen J.R. Köhler’s bone disease of the tarsal navicular // J. Pediatr. Orthop. 1995. Vol. 15. No. 5. P. 596–598. DOI: 10.1097/01241398-199509000-00009

[126] Borges JL, Guille JT, Bowen JR. Köhler’s bone disease of the tarsal navicular. J Pediatr Orthop. 1995;15(5):596–598. DOI: 10.1097/01241398-199509000-00009

[127] Baindurashvili AG, Sergeev SV, Petrov AG, et al. Clinical presentation tool osteochondritis dissecans knee in children. Vestnik Chuvashskogo universiteta. 2013;(3):370–375. (In Russ.).

[128] Баиндурашвили А.Г., Сергеев С.В., Петров А.Г., и др. Клинико-инструментальные проявления рассекающего остеохондрита коленного сустава у детей // Вестник Чувашского университета. 2013. № 3. С. 370–375.

[129] Baindurashvili AG, Sergeev SV, Petrov AG, et al. Clinical presentation tool osteochondritis dissecans knee in children. Vestnik Chuvashskogo universiteta. 2013;(3):370–375. (In Russ.).

[130] Gulati A, McElrath C, Wadhwa V, et al. Current clinical, radiological and treatment perspectives of patellofemoral pain syndrome. Br J Radiol. 2018;91(1086). DOI: 10.1259/bjr.20170456

[131] Gulati A., McElrath C., Wadhwa V., et al. Current clinical, radiological and treatment perspectives of patellofemoral pain syndrome // Br. J. Radiol. 2018. Vol. 91. No. 1086. DOI: 10.1259/bjr.20170456

[132] Gulati A, McElrath C, Wadhwa V, et al. Current clinical, radiological and treatment perspectives of patellofemoral pain syndrome. Br J Radiol. 2018;91(1086). DOI: 10.1259/bjr.20170456

[133] De Sanctis V, Abbasciano V, Soliman AT, et al. The juvenile fibromyalgia syndrome (JFMS): a poorly defined disorder. Acta Biomed. 2019;90(1):134–148. DOI: 10.23750/abm.v90i1.8141

[134] De Sanctis V., Abbasciano V., Soliman A.T., et al. The juvenile fibromyalgia syndrome (JFMS): a poorly defined disorder // Acta Biomed. 2019. Vol. 90. No. 1. P. 134–148. DOI: 10.23750/abm.v90i1.8141

[135] De Sanctis V, Abbasciano V, Soliman AT, et al. The juvenile fibromyalgia syndrome (JFMS): a poorly defined disorder. Acta Biomed. 2019;90(1):134–148. DOI: 10.23750/abm.v90i1.8141

[136] Yunus MB, Masi AT, Aldag JC. Preliminary criteria for primary fibromyalgia syndrome (PFS): multivariate analysis of a consecutive series of PFS, other pain patients, and normal subjects. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1989;7(1):63–69.

[137] Yunus M.B., Masi A.T., Aldag J.C. Preliminary criteria for primary fibromyalgia syndrome (PFS): multivariate analysis of a consecutive series of PFS, other pain patients, and normal subjects // Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 1989. Vol. 7. No. 1. P. 63–69.

[138] Yunus MB, Masi AT, Aldag JC. Preliminary criteria for primary fibromyalgia syndrome (PFS): multivariate analysis of a consecutive series of PFS, other pain patients, and normal subjects. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1989;7(1):63–69.

[139] Mistry RR, Patro P, Agarwal V, et al. Enthesitis-related arthritis: current perspectives. Open Access Rheumatol. 2019;11:19–31. DOI: 10.2147/OARRR.S163677

[140] Mistry R.R., Patro P., Agarwal V., et al. Enthesitis-related arthritis: current perspectives // Open Access Rheumatol. 2019. Vol. 11. P. 19-31. DOI: 10.2147/OARRR.S163677

[141] Mistry RR, Patro P, Agarwal V, et al. Enthesitis-related arthritis: current perspectives. Open Access Rheumatol. 2019;11:19–31. DOI: 10.2147/OARRR.S163677

[142] Shipa MR, Heyer N, Mansoor R, et al. Adalimumab or etanercept as first line biologic therapy in enthesitis related arthritis (ERA) – a drug-survival single centre study spanning 10 years. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2022;55. DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2022.152038

[143] Shipa M.R., Heyer N., Mansoor R., et al. Adalimumab or etanercept as first line biologic therapy in enthesitis related arthritis (ERA) – a drug-survival single centre study spanning 10 years // Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 2022. Vol. 55. DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2022.152038

[144] Shipa MR, Heyer N, Mansoor R, et al. Adalimumab or etanercept as first line biologic therapy in enthesitis related arthritis (ERA) – a drug-survival single centre study spanning 10 years. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2022;55. DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2022.152038

[145] Brunner HI, Foeldvari I, Alexeeva E, et al. Secukinumab in enthesitis-related arthritis and juvenile psoriatic arthritis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, treatment withdrawal, phase 3 trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 2022. DOI: 10.1136/ard-2022-222849

[146] Brunner H.I., Foeldvari I., Alexeeva E., et al. Secukinumab in enthesitis-related arthritis and juvenile psoriatic arthritis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, treatment withdrawal, phase 3 trial // Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2022. DOI: 10.1136/ard-2022-222849

[147] Brunner HI, Foeldvari I, Alexeeva E, et al. Secukinumab in enthesitis-related arthritis and juvenile psoriatic arthritis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, treatment withdrawal, phase 3 trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 2022. DOI: 10.1136/ard-2022-222849

[148] Noureldin B, Barkham N. The current standard of care and the unmet needs for axial spondyloarthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2018;57:vi10-vi17. DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/key217

[149] Noureldin B., Barkham N. The current standard of care and the unmet needs for axial spondyloarthritis // Rheumatology (Oxford). 2018. Vol. 57. P. vi10–vi17. DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/key217

[150] Noureldin B, Barkham N. The current standard of care and the unmet needs for axial spondyloarthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2018;57:vi10-vi17. DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/key217

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Raupov R.K., Vissarionov S.V., Babaeva G.A., Noyanova Y.G., Sorokina L.S., Kostik M.M.