Current understanding of complex regional pain syndrome

Abstract

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a multifactorial pathology characterized by chronic pain, autonomic disorders, and motor dysfunction. This review discusses the mechanisms of CRPS development, as well as methods of its diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. In addition to drug treatment and physical therapy, issues of interventional methods for the treatment of CRPS are also covered. Along with sympathetic blocks and various ablation techniques under ultrasound and fluoroscopic guidance, a new waveform for spinal cord stimulation and new stimulation targets such as dorsal root ganglia have been proposed.

Keywords

complex regional pain syndrome / reflex sympathetic dystrophysyndrome / interventional pain management / cryoanalgesia / spinal cord stimulation

References

[1] Paré A. Of the cure of wounds of the nervous system. In: The collected works of Ambroise Pare. New York: Milford House; 1968;1634–1639.

[2] Paré A. Of the cure of wounds of the nervous system. In: The collected works of Ambroise Pare. New York: Milford House, 1968. P. 1634–1639.

[3] Doury P, Dirheimer Y, Pattin S. Historical review. In: Algodystrophy: Diagnosis and therapy for frequent disease of the locomotor apparatus. Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer; 1981;2–6.

[4] Doury P., Dirheimer Y., Pattin S. Historical review. In: Algodystrophy: Diagnosis and therapy for frequent disease of the locomotor apparatus. Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer, 1981. P. 2–6.

[5] An DA. Example of symptoms resembling tic douleureux, produced by a wound in the radial nerve. Med Chir Trans.1813;4:48–52.

[6] An D.A. Example of symptoms resembling tic douleureux, produced by a wound in the radial nerve // Med Chir Trans. 1813. Vol. 4. P. 48–52.

[7] Sudeck P. Über die akuteentzündlicheKnochenatrophie. Arch KlinChir. 1900;62:147–156.

[8] Sudeck P. Über die akuteentzündlicheKnochenatrophie // Arch KlinChir. 1900. Vol. 62. P. 147–156.

[9] Shim H, Rose J, Halle S, Shekane P. Complex regional pain syndrome: a narrative review for the practising clinician. Br J Anaesth. 2019;123(2):e424–e433. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2019.03.030

[10] Shim H., Rose J., Halle S., Shekane P. Complex regional pain syndrome: a narrative review for the practising clinician // Br J Anaesth. 2019. Vol. 123, N 2. P. e424–e433. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2019.03.030

[11] Elsharydah A, Loo NH, Minhajuddin A, Kandil ES. Complex regional pain syndrome type 1 predictors – Epidemiological perspective from a national database analysis. J Clin Anesth. 2017;39:34–37. doi: 10.1016/j.jclinane.2017.03.027

[12] Elsharydah A., Loo N.H., Minhajuddin A., Kandil E.S. Complex regional pain syndrome type 1 predictors – Epidemiological perspective from a national database analysis // J Clin Anesth. 2017. Vol. 39, P. 34–37. doi: 10.1016/j.jclinane.2017.03.027

[13] Murphy KR, Han JL, Yang S, et al. Prevalence of Specific Types of Pain Diagnoses in a Sample of United States Adults. Pain Physician. 2017;20(2):E257–E268.

[14] Murphy K.R., Han J.L., Yang S., et al. Prevalence of Specific Types of Pain Diagnoses in a Sample of United States Adults // Pain Physician. 2017. Vol. 20, N 2. P. E257–E268.

[15] Taylor SS, Noor N, Urits I, et al. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review. Pain Ther. 2021;10(2):875–892. doi: 10.1007/s40122-021-00279-4

[16] Taylor S.S., Noor N., Urits I., et al. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review // Pain Ther. 2021. Vol. 10, N 2. P. 875–892. doi: 10.1007/s40122-021-00279-4

[17] Ott S, Maihofner C. Signs and Symptoms in 1,043 Patients with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. J Pain. 2018;19(6):599–611. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2018.01.004

[18] Ott S., Maihofner C. Signs and Symptoms in 1,043 Patients with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome // J Pain. 2018. Vol. 19, N 6. P. 599–611. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2018.01.004

[19] Koval K, Haidukewych GJ, Service B, Zirgibel BJ. Controversies in the management of distal radius fractures. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2014;22(9):566–575. doi: 10.5435/JAAOS-22-09-566

[20] Koval K., Haidukewych G.J., Service B., Zirgibel B.J. Controversies in the management of distal radius fractures // J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2014. Vol. 22, N 9. P. 566–575. doi: 10.5435/JAAOS-22-09-566

[21] Crijns TJ, van der Gronde B, Ring D, Leung N. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome After Distal Radius Fracture Is Uncommon and Is Often Associated With Fibromyalgia. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2018;476(4):744–750. doi: 10.1007/s11999.0000000000000070

[22] Crijns T.J., van der Gronde B., Ring D., Leung N. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome After Distal Radius Fracture Is Uncommon and Is Often Associated With Fibromyalgia // Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2018. Vol. 476, N 4. P. 744–750. doi: 10.1007/s11999.0000000000000070

[23] Cutts S, Gangoo S, Srinivasan SH, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: an evolving perspective. Postgrad Med J. 2021;97(1146):250–255. doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-137808

[24] Cutts S., Gangoo S., Srinivasan S.H., et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: an evolving perspective // Postgrad Med J. 2021. Vol. 97, N 1146. P. 250–255. doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-137808

[25] Misidou C, Papagoras C. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: An update. Mediterr J Rheumatol. 2019;30(1):16–25. doi: 10.31138/mjr.30.1.16

[26] Misidou C., Papagoras C. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: An update // Mediterr J Rheumatol. 2019. Vol. 30, N 1. P. 16–25. doi: 10.31138/mjr.30.1.16

[27] Baronio M, Sadia H, Paolacci S, et al. Molecular Aspects of Regional Pain Syndrome. Pain Res Manag. 2020;2020:7697214. doi: 10.1155/2020/7697214

[28] Baronio M., Sadia H., Paolacci S., et al. Molecular Aspects of Regional Pain Syndrome // Pain Res Manag. 2020. Vol. 2020. P. 7697214. doi: 10.1155/2020/7697214

[29] Sommer C, Leinders M, Uceyler N. Inflammation in the pathophysiology of neuropathic pain. Pain. 2018;159(3):595–602. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001122

[30] Sommer C., Leinders M., Uceyler N. Inflammation in the pathophysiology of neuropathic pain // Pain. 2018. Vol. 159, N 3. P. 595–602. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001122

[31] Wehmeyer C, Pap T, Buckley CD, Naylor AJ. The role of stromal cells in inflammatory bone loss. Clin Exp Immunol. 2017;189(1):1–11. doi: 10.1111/cei.12979

[32] Wehmeyer C., Pap T., Buckley C.D., Naylor A.J. The role of stromal cells in inflammatory bone loss // Clin Exp Immunol. 2017. Vol. 189, N 1. P. 1–11. doi: 10.1111/cei.12979

[33] Littlejohn G. Neurogenic neuroinflammation in fibromyalgia and complex regional pain syndrome. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2015;11(11):639–648. doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2015.100

[34] Littlejohn G. Neurogenic neuroinflammation in fibromyalgia and complex regional pain syndrome // Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2015. Vol. 11, N 11. P. 639–648. doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2015.100

[35] Yvon A, Faroni A, Reid AJ, Lees VC. Selective Fiber Degeneration in the Peripheral Nerve of a Patient With Severe Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Front Neurosci. 2018;12:207. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00207

[36] Yvon A., Faroni A., Reid A.J., Lees V.C. Selective Fiber Degeneration in the Peripheral Nerve of a Patient With Severe Complex Regional Pain Syndrome // Front Neurosci. 2018. Vol. 12. P. 207. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00207

[37] Knudsen LF, Terkelsen AJ, Drummond PD, Birklein F. Complex regional pain syndrome: a focus on the autonomic nervous system. Clin Auton Res. 2019;29(4):457–467. doi: 10.1007/s10286-019-00612-0

[38] Knudsen L.F., Terkelsen A.J., Drummond P.D., Birklein F. Complex regional pain syndrome: a focus on the autonomic nervous system // Clin Auton Res. 2019. Vol. 29, N 4. P. 457–467. doi: 10.1007/s10286-019-00612-0

[39] Kortekaas MC, Niehof SP, Stolker RJ, Huygen FJ. Pathophysiological Mechanisms Involved in Vasomotor Disturbances in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome and Implications for Therapy: A Review. Pain Pract. 2016;16(7):905–914. doi: 10.1111/papr.12403

[40] Kortekaas M.C., Niehof S.P., Stolker R.J., Huygen F.J. Pathophysiological Mechanisms Involved in Vasomotor Disturbances in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome and Implications for Therapy: A Review // Pain Pract. 2016. Vol. 16, N 7. P. 905–914. doi: 10.1111/papr.12403

[41] Goh EL, Chidambaram S, Ma D. Complex regional pain syndrome: a recent update. Burns Trauma. 2017;5:2. doi: 10.1186/s41038-016-0066-4

[42] Goh E.L., Chidambaram S., Ma D. Complex regional pain syndrome: a recent update // Burns Trauma. 2017. Vol. 5. P. 2. doi: 10.1186/s41038-016-0066-4

[43] Di Pietro F, McAuley JH, Parkitny L, et al. Primary somatosensory cortex function in complex regional pain syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pain. 2013;14(10):1001–1018. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2013.04.001

[44] Di Pietro F., McAuley J.H., Parkitny L., et al. Primary somatosensory cortex function in complex regional pain syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis // J Pain. 2013. Vol. 14, N 10. P. 1001–1018. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2013.04.001

[45] Tajerian M, Clark JD. New Concepts in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Hand Clin. 2016;32(1):41–49. doi: 10.1016/j.hcl.2015.08.003

[46] Tajerian M., Clark J.D. New Concepts in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome // Hand Clin. 2016. Vol. 32, N 1. P. 41–49. doi: 10.1016/j.hcl.2015.08.003

[47] Cuhadar U, Gentry C, Vastani N, et al. Autoantibodies produce pain in complex regional pain syndrome by sensitizing nociceptors. Pain. 2019;160(12):2855–2865. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001662

[48] Cuhadar U., Gentry C., Vastani N., et al. Autoantibodies produce pain in complex regional pain syndrome by sensitizing nociceptors // Pain. 2019. Vol. 160, N 12. P. 2855–2865. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001662

[49] David Clark J, Tawfik VL, Tajerian M, Kingery WS. Autoinflammatory and autoimmune contributions to complex regional pain syndrome. Mol Pain. 2018;14:1744806918799127. doi: 10.1177/1744806918799127

[50] David Clark J., Tawfik V.L., Tajerian M., Kingery W.S. Autoinflammatory and autoimmune contributions to complex regional pain syndrome // Mol Pain. 2018. Vol. 14. P. 1744806918799127. doi: 10.1177/1744806918799127

[51] Dubuis E, Thompson V, Leite MI, et al. Longstanding complex regional pain syndrome is associated with activating autoantibodies against alpha-1a adrenoceptors. Pain. 2014;155(11):2408–2417. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2014.09.022

[52] Dubuis E., Thompson V., Leite M.I., et al. Longstanding complex regional pain syndrome is associated with activating autoantibodies against alpha-1a adrenoceptors // Pain. 2014. Vol. 155, N 11. P. 2408–2417. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2014.09.022

[53] Bruehl S, Gamazon ER, Van de Ven T, et al. DNA methylation profiles are associated with complex regional pain syndrome after traumatic injury. Pain. 2019;160(10):2328–2337. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001624

[54] Bruehl S., Gamazon E.R., Van de Ven T., et al. DNA methylation profiles are associated with complex regional pain syndrome after traumatic injury // Pain. 2019. Vol. 160, N 10. P. 2328–2337. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001624

[55] Park HY, Jang YE, Oh S, Lee PB. Psychological Characteristics in Patients with Chronic Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: Comparisons with Patients with Major Depressive Disorder and Other Types of Chronic Pain. J Pain Res. 2020;13:389–398. doi: 10.2147/JPR.S230394

[56] Park H.Y., Jang Y.E., Oh S., Lee P.B. Psychological Characteristics in Patients with Chronic Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: Comparisons with Patients with Major Depressive Disorder and Other Types of Chronic Pain // J Pain Res. 2020. Vol. 13. P. 389–398. doi: 10.2147/JPR.S230394

[57] Speck V, Schlereth T, Birklein F, Maihofner C. Increased prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in CRPS. Eur J Pain. 2017;21(3):466–473. doi: 10.1002/ejp.940

[58] Speck V., Schlereth T., Birklein F., Maihofner C. Increased prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in CRPS // Eur J Pain. 2017. Vol. 21, N 3. P. 466–473. doi: 10.1002/ejp.940

[59] Koryachkin VA. Complex regional pain syndrome. Traumatology and Orthopedics of Russia. 2014;20(3):147–156. (In Russ). doi: 10.21823/2311-2905-89

[60] Корячкин В.А. Комплексный регионарный болевой синдром // Травматология и ортопедия России. 2014. Т. 73, № 3. С. 147–156.

[61] Goebel A, Birklein F, Brunner F, et al. The Valencia consensus-based adaptation of the IASP complex regional pain syndrome diagnostic criteria. Pain. 2021;162(9):2346–2348. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002245

[62] Goebel A., Birklein F., Brunner F., et al. The Valencia consensus-based adaptation of the IASP complex regional pain syndrome diagnostic criteria // Pain. 2021. Vol. 162, N 9. P. 2346–2348. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002245

[63] Kalita J, Vajpayee A, Misra UK. Comparison of prednisolone with piroxicam in complex regional pain syndrome following stroke: a randomized controlled trial. QJM. 2006;99(2):89–95. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hcl004

[64] Kalita J., Vajpayee A., Misra U.K. Comparison of prednisolone with piroxicam in complex regional pain syndrome following stroke: a randomized controlled trial // QJM. 2006. Vol. 99, N 2. P. 89–95. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hcl004

[65] Barbalinardo S, Loer SA, Goebel A, Perez RS. The Treatment of Longstanding Complex Regional Pain Syndrome with Oral Steroids. Pain Med. 2016;17(2):337–343. doi: 10.1093/pm/pnv002

[66] Barbalinardo S., Loer S.A., Goebel A., Perez R.S. The Treatment of Longstanding Complex Regional Pain Syndrome with Oral Steroids // Pain Med. 2016. Vol. 17, N 2. P. 337–343. doi: 10.1093/pm/pnv002

[67] Urits I, Shen AH, Jones MR, et al. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome, Current Concepts and Treatment Options. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2018;22(2):10. doi: 10.1007/s11916-018-0667-7

[68] Urits I., Shen A.H., Jones M.R., et al. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome, Current Concepts and Treatment Options // Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2018. Vol. 22, N 2. P. 10. doi: 10.1007/s11916-018-0667-7

[69] Chevreau M, Romand X, Gaudin P, et al. Bisphosphonates for treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome type 1: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials versus placebo. Joint Bone Spine. 2017;84(4):393–399. doi: 10.1016/j.jbspin.2017.03.009

[70] Chevreau M., Romand X., Gaudin P., et al. Bisphosphonates for treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome type 1: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials versus placebo // Joint Bone Spine. 2017. Vol. 84, N 4. P. 393–399. doi: 10.1016/j.jbspin.2017.03.009

[71] Trofimovitch D, Baumrucker SJ. Pharmacology Update: Low-Dose Naltrexone as a Possible Nonopioid Modality for Some Chronic, Nonmalignant Pain Syndromes. Am J Hosp Palliat Care. 2019;36(10):907–912. doi: 10.1177/1049909119838974

[72] Trofimovitch D., Baumrucker S.J. Pharmacology Update: Low-Dose Naltrexone as a Possible Nonopioid Modality for Some Chronic, Nonmalignant Pain Syndromes // Am J Hosp Palliat Care. 2019. Vol. 36, N 10. P. 907–912. doi: 10.1177/1049909119838974

[73] Siongco PRL, Rosales RL, Moore AP, et al. Botulinum neurotoxin injections for muscle-based (dystonia and spasticity) and non-muscle-based (neuropathic pain) pain disorders: a meta-analytic study. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2020;127(6):935–951. doi: 10.1007/s00702-020-02163-5

[74] Siongco P.R.L., Rosales R.L., Moore A.P., et al. Botulinum neurotoxin injections for muscle-based (dystonia and spasticity) and non-muscle-based (neuropathic pain) pain disorders: a meta-analytic study // J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2020. Vol. 127, N 6. P. 935–951. doi: 10.1007/s00702-020-02163-5

[75] Almog S, Aharon-Peretz J, Vulfsons S, et al. The pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of a novel selective-dose cannabis inhaler in patients with chronic pain: A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Pain. 2020;24(8):1505–1516. doi: 10.1002/ejp.1605

[76] Almog S., Aharon-Peretz J., Vulfsons S., et al. The pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of a novel selective-dose cannabis inhaler in patients with chronic pain: A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial // Eur J Pain. 2020. Vol. 24, N 8. P. 1505–1516. doi: 10.1002/ejp.1605

[77] Stockings E, Campbell G, Hall WD, et al. Cannabis and cannabinoids for the treatment of people with chronic noncancer pain conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled and observational studies. Pain. 2018;159(10):1932–1954. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001293

[78] Stockings E., Campbell G., Hall W.D., et al. Cannabis and cannabinoids for the treatment of people with chronic noncancer pain conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled and observational studies // Pain. 2018. Vol. 159, N 10. P. 1932–1954. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001293

[79] Goebel A, Jacob A, Frank B, et al. Mycophenolate for persistent complex regional pain syndrome, a parallel, open, randomised, proof of concept trial. Scand J Pain. 2018;18(1):29–37. doi: 10.1515/sjpain-2017-0154

[80] Goebel A., Jacob A., Frank B., et al. Mycophenolate for persistent complex regional pain syndrome, a parallel, open, randomised, proof of concept trial // Scand J Pain. 2018. Vol. 18, N 1. P. 29–37. doi: 10.1515/sjpain-2017-0154

[81] Lee SH, Yoo SH, Lee HJ, et al. Anti-Allodynic Effects of Polydeoxyribonucleotide in an Animal Model of Neuropathic Pain and Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. J Korean Med Sci. 2020;35(26):e225. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e225

[82] Lee S.H., Yoo S.H., Lee H.J., et al. Anti-Allodynic Effects of Polydeoxyribonucleotide in an Animal Model of Neuropathic Pain and Complex Regional Pain Syndrome // J Korean Med Sci. 2020. Vol. 35, N 26. P. e225. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e225

[83] Yang S, Chang MC. Effect of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation on Pain Management: A Systematic Narrative Review. Front Neurol. 2020;11:114. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00114

[84] Yang S., Chang M.C. Effect of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation on Pain Management: A Systematic Narrative Review // Front Neurol. 2020. Vol. 11. P. 114. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00114

[85] Alexander GM, Aradillas E, Schwartzman RJ, et al. Retrospective study plasma exchange therapy in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Pain Physician. 2015;18:383–394.

[86] Alexander G.M., Aradillas E., Schwartzman R.J., et al. Retrospective study plasma exchange therapy in patients with complex regional pain syndrome // Pain Physician. 2015. Vol. 18. P. 383–394.

[87] Kostrub AA, Bur’yanov AA, Polyachenko YV, et al. Nemedikamentoznoe lechenie kompleksnogo regionarnogo bolevogo sindroma 1 tipa (sindrom Zudeka). Meditsinskii zhurnal. 2020;4:145–150.

[88] Коструб А.А., Бурьянов А.А., Поляченко Ю.В., и др. Немедикаментозное лечение комплексного регионарного болевого синдрома 1 типа (синдром Зудека) // Медицинский журнал. 2020. № 4. С. 145–150.

[89] Nazarova MA, Piradov MA. Zerkal’naya terapiya v neiroreabilitatsii. RMZh. 2014;22(22):1563–1567.

[90] Назарова М.А., Пирадов М.А. Зеркальная терапия в нейрореабилитации // Русский Медицинский журнал. 2014. Т. 22, № 22. С. 1563–1567.

[91] Chau B, Phelan I, Ta P, et al. Immersive Virtual Reality for Pain Relief in Upper Limb Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Pilot Study. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2020;17(4–6):47–52. PMC7413329

[92] Chau B., Phelan I., Ta P., et al. Immersive Virtual Reality for Pain Relief in Upper Limb Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Pilot Study // Innov Clin Neurosci. 2020. Vol. 17, N 4–6. P. 47–52. PMC7413329

[93] Moufawad S, Malak O, Mekhail NA. Epidural infusion of opiates and local anesthetics for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Pain Pract. 2002;2(2):81–86. doi: 10.1046/j.1533-2500.2002.02010.x

[94] Moufawad S., Malak O., Mekhail N.A. Epidural infusion of opiates and local anesthetics for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome // Pain Pract. 2002. Vol. 2, N 2. P. 81–86. doi: 10.1046/j.1533-2500.2002.02010.x

[95] Wie C, Gupta R, Maloney J, et al. Interventional Modalities to Treat Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2021;25(2):10. doi: 10.1007/s11916-020-00904-5

[96] Wie C., Gupta R., Maloney J., et al. Interventional Modalities to Treat Complex Regional Pain Syndrome // Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2021. Vol. 25, N 2. P. 10. doi: 10.1007/s11916-020-00904-5

[97] Aleanakian R, Chung BY, Feldmann RE, Jr., Benrath J. Effectiveness, Safety, and Predictive Potential in Ultrasound-Guided Stellate Ganglion Blockades for the Treatment of Sympathetically Maintained Pain. Pain Pract. 2020;20(6):626–638. doi: 10.1111/papr.12892

[98] Aleanakian R., Chung B.Y., Feldmann R.E., Jr., Benrath J. Effectiveness, Safety, and Predictive Potential in Ultrasound-Guided Stellate Ganglion Blockades for the Treatment of Sympathetically Maintained Pain // Pain Pract. 2020. Vol. 20, N 6. P. 626–638. doi: 10.1111/papr.12892

[99] Narouze S. Ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block: safety and efficacy. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2014;18(6):424. doi: 10.1007/s11916-014-0424-5

[100] Narouze S. Ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block: safety and efficacy // Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2014. Vol. 18, N 6. P. 424. doi: 10.1007/s11916-014-0424-5

[101] Datta S, Pai U. Paradiscal extraforaminal technique for lumbar sympathetic block: report of a proposed new technique utilizing a cadaver study. Pain Physician. 2004;7(1):53–57.

[102] Datta S., Pai U. Paradiscal extraforaminal technique for lumbar sympathetic block: report of a proposed new technique utilizing a cadaver study // Pain Physician. 2004. Vol. 7, N 1. P. 53–57.

[103] Kirvela O, Svedstrom E, Lundbom N. Ultrasonic guidance of lumbar sympathetic and celiac plexus block: a new technique. Reg Anesth. 1992;17(1):43–46.

[104] Kirvela O., Svedstrom E., Lundbom N. Ultrasonic guidance of lumbar sympathetic and celiac plexus block: a new technique // Reg Anesth. 1992. Vol. 17, N 1. P. 43–46.

[105] Konig CW, Schott UG, Pereira PL, et al. MR-guided lumbar sympathicolysis. Eur Radiol. 2002;12(6):1388–1393. doi: 10.1007/s003300101064

[106] Konig C.W., Schott U.G., Pereira P.L., et al. MR-guided lumbar sympathicolysis // Eur Radiol. 2002. Vol. 12, N 6. P. 1388–1393. doi: 10.1007/s003300101064

[107] Moon JY, Choi JK, Shin JY, et al. A brief report on a technical description of ultrasound-guided lumbar sympathetic block. Korean J Pain. 2017;30(1):66–70. doi: 10.3344/kjp.2017.30.1.66

[108] Moon J.Y., Choi J.K., Shin J.Y., et al. A brief report on a technical description of ultrasound-guided lumbar sympathetic block // Korean J Pain. 2017. Vol. 30, N 1. P. 66–70. doi: 10.3344/kjp.2017.30.1.66

[109] Cheng J, Salmasi V, You J, et al. Outcomes of Sympathetic Blocks in the Management of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Anesthesiology. 2019;131(4):883–893. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000002899

[110] Cheng J., Salmasi V., You J., et al. Outcomes of Sympathetic Blocks in the Management of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Retrospective Cohort Study // Anesthesiology. 2019. Vol. 131, N 4. P. 883–893. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000002899

[111] Isagulyan E, Slavin K, Konovalov N, et al. Spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain: technical advances. Korean J Pain. 2020;33(2):99–107. doi: 10.3344/kjp.2020.33.2.99

[112] Isagulyan E., Slavin K., Konovalov N., et al. Spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain: technical advances // Korean J Pain. 2020. Vol. 33, N 2. P. 99–107. doi: 10.3344/kjp.2020.33.2.99

[113] Lind AL, Emami Khoonsari P, Sjodin M, et al. Spinal Cord Stimulation Alters Protein Levels in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Neuropathic Pain Patients: A Proteomic Mass Spectrometric Analysis. Neuromodulation. 2016;19(6):549–562. doi: 10.1111/ner.12473

[114] Lind A.L., Emami Khoonsari P., Sjodin M., et al. Spinal Cord Stimulation Alters Protein Levels in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Neuropathic Pain Patients: A Proteomic Mass Spectrometric Analysis // Neuromodulation. 2016. Vol. 19, N 6. P. 549–562. doi: 10.1111/ner.12473

[115] Chmiela MA, Hendrickson M, Hale J, et al. Direct Peripheral Nerve Stimulation for the Treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A 30-Year Review. Neuromodulation. 2021;24(6):971–982. doi: 10.1111/ner.13295

[116] Chmiela M.A., Hendrickson M., Hale J., et al. Direct Peripheral Nerve Stimulation for the Treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A 30-Year Review // Neuromodulation. 2021. Vol. 24, N 6. P. 971–982. doi: 10.1111/ner.13295

[117] Gill JS, Asgerally A, Simopoulos TT. High-Frequency Spinal Cord Stimulation at 10 kHz for the Treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Case Series of Patients With or Without Previous Spinal Cord Stimulator Implantation. Pain Pract. 2019;19(3):289–294. doi: 10.1111/papr.12739

[118] Gill J.S., Asgerally A., Simopoulos T.T. High-Frequency Spinal Cord Stimulation at 10 kHz for the Treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Case Series of Patients With or Without Previous Spinal Cord Stimulator Implantation // Pain Pract. 2019. Vol. 19, N 3. P. 289–294. doi: 10.1111/papr.12739

[119] Deer TR, Levy RM, Kramer J, et al. Dorsal root ganglion stimulation yielded higher treatment success rate for complex regional pain syndrome and causalgia at 3 and 12 months: a randomized comparative trial. Pain. 2017;158(4):669–681. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000814

[120] Deer T.R., Levy R.M., Kramer J., et al. Dorsal root ganglion stimulation yielded higher treatment success rate for complex regional pain syndrome and causalgia at 3 and 12 months: a randomized comparative trial // Pain. 2017. Vol. 158, N 4. P. 669–681. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000814

[121] Zacharias NA, Karri J, Garcia C, et al. Interventional Radiofrequency Treatment for the Sympathetic Nervous System: A Review Article. Pain Ther. 2021;10(1):115–141. doi: 10.1007/s40122-020-00227-8

[122] Zacharias N.A., Karri J., Garcia C., et al. Interventional Radiofrequency Treatment for the Sympathetic Nervous System: A Review Article // Pain Ther. 2021. Vol. 10, N 1. P. 115–141. doi: 10.1007/s40122-020-00227-8

[123] Svirskii DA, Antipin EE, Bochkareva NA, et al. Cryoanalgesia. Review. Annals of critical care. 2020(4):58–73. doi: 10.21320/1818-474x-2020-4-58-73

[124] Свирский Д.А., Антипин А.А., Бочкарева Н.А., и др. Недашковский. Криоанальгезия. Обзор литературы // Вестник интенсивной терапии им. А.И. Салтанова. 2020. № 4. С. 58–73. doi: 10.21320/1818-474X-2020-4-58-73.

[125] Sarridou D, Papadopoulou D, Paraskevopoulos T, Stavropoulou E. Successful treatment of complex regional pain syndrome type 1 of upper limb with cryoneurolysis of the stellate ganglion: A rare case report. Pain Pract. 2022;22(2):285–287. doi: 10.1111/papr.13077

[126] Sarridou D., Papadopoulou D., Paraskevopoulos T., Stavropoulou E. Successful treatment of complex regional pain syndrome type 1 of upper limb with cryoneurolysis of the stellate ganglion: A rare case report // Pain Pract. 2022. Vol. 22, N 2. P. 285–287. doi: 10.1111/papr.13077

[127] Bodde MI, Dijkstra PU, den Dunnen WF, Geertzen JH. Therapy-resistant complex regional pain syndrome typ–1805. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.J.01329

[128] Bodde M.I., Dijkstra P.U., den Dunnen W.F., Geertzen J.H. Therapy-resistant complex regional pain syndrome type I: to amputate or not? // J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2011. Vol. 93, N 19. P. 1799–1805. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.J.01329

[129] Ayyaswamy B, Saeed B, Anand A, et al. Quality of life after amputation in patients with advanced complex regional pain syndrome: a systematic review. EFORT Open Rev. 2019;4(9):533–540. doi: 10.1302/2058-5241.4.190008

[130] Ayyaswamy B., Saeed B., Anand A., et al. Quality of life after amputation in patients with advanced complex regional pain syndrome: a systematic review // EFORT Open Rev. 2019. Vol. 4, N 9. P. 533–540. doi: 10.1302/2058-5241.4.190008

[131] Aim F, Klouche S, Frison A, et al. Efficacy of vitamin C in preventing complex regional pain syndrome after wrist fracture: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2017;103(3):465–470. doi: 10.1016/j.otsr.2016.12.021

[132] Aim F., Klouche S., Frison A., et al. Efficacy of vitamin C in preventing complex regional pain syndrome after wrist fracture: A systematic review and meta-analysis // Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2017. Vol. 103, N 3. P. 465–470. doi: 10.1016/j.otsr.2016.12.021

[133] Hernigou J, Labadens A, Ghistelinck B, et al. Vitamin C prevention of complex regional pain syndrome after foot and ankle surgery: a prospective randomized study of three hundred and twenty nine patients. Int Orthop. 2021;45(9):2453–2459. doi: 10.1007/s00264-021-05159-2

[134] Hernigou J., Labadens A., Ghistelinck B., et al. Vitamin C prevention of complex regional pain syndrome after foot and ankle surgery: a prospective randomized study of three hundred and twenty nine patients // Int Orthop. 2021. Vol. 45, N 9. P. 2453–2459. doi: 10.1007/s00264-021-05159-2

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Petrushin A.L., Antipin E.E., Bragina S.V., Yakovenko M.P., Bochkareva N.A., Koroleva N.I.