The role of pre-pregnancy care for women with pregestational diabetes mellitus for improving maternal and perinatal outcomes

Abstract

The occurrence of diabetes mellitus in women before pregnancy (pregestational diabetes mellitus can have various adverse consequences for the mother, fetus, child, and pregnancy. Pregnancy planning in women with pregestational diabetes mellitus significantly improves the outcomes of pregnancy and childbirth. The introduction of diabetes self-control skills, the use of human insulin and insulin analogues, the use of constant subcutaneous insulin infusion and family planning allows for optimal glycemic control in early pregnancy and reduces the incidence of fetal congenital anomalies and perinatal mortality. Lifestyle optimization, weight loss, taking adequate doses of folic acid, discontinuation of teratogenic medications, and quitting smoking are essential components of preconception care. Of significant clinical value is the training of women planning pregnancy at the “Diabetes school”, training in self-control and insulin therapy skills, consultation with an endocrinologist, an obstetrician-gynecologist, an ophthalmologist, a nephrologist, and a nutritionist.

The aim of this study was to present current data on pre-pregnancy care in patients with pregestational diabetes mellitus and to show its possibilities in reducing the frequency of obstetric and perinatal complications. We analyzed 74 domestic and foreign literature sources using the following databases: PubMed, PubMed Central, Google Scholar, and UpToDate.

Keywords

type 1 diabetes mellitus / preconception care / macrosomia / perinatal mortality / premature birth

References

[1] IDF Diabetes Atlas. 10 edition. Brussels, 2021. [cited 2022 Jan 14]. Available from: https://diabetesatlas.org/idfawp/resource-files/2021/07/IDF_Atlas_10th_Edition_2021.pdf

[2] IDF Diabetes Atlas. [Internet]. 10th edition. Brussels, 2021. [дата обращения 14.01.2022]. Доступ по ссылке: https://diabetesatlas.org/idfawp/resource-files/2021/07/IDF_Atlas_10th_Edition_2021.pdf

[3] Holick MF. The vitamin D deficiency pandemic: Approaches for diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2017;18(2):153−165. DOI: 10.1007/s11154-017-9424-1

[4] Holick M.F. The vitamin D deficiency pandemic: Approaches for diagnosis, treatment and prevention // Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 2017. Vol. 18. No. 2. P. 153−165. DOI: 10.1007/s11154-017-9424-1

[5] Dedov II, Shestakova MV, Vikulova OK, et al. Epidemiological characteristics of diabetes mellitus in the Russian Federation: clinical and statistical analysis according to the Federal diabetes register data of 01.01.2021. Diabetes mellitus. 2021;24(3):204−221. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.14341/DM12759

[6] Дедов И.И., Шестакова М.В., Викулова О.К., и др. Эпидемиологические характеристики сахарного диабета в Российской Федерации: клинико-статистический анализ по данным регистра сахарного диабета на 01.01.2021 // Сахарный диабет. 2021. Т. 24. № 3. С. 204−221. DOI: 10.14341/DM12759

[7] Temple R, Aldridge V, Greenwood R, et al. Association between outcome of pregnancy and glycaemic control in early pregnancy in type 1 diabetes: population based study. BMJ. 2002;325(7375):1275−1276. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.325.7375.1275

[8] Temple R., Aldridge V., Greenwood R., et al. Association between outcome of pregnancy and glycaemic control in early pregnancy in type 1 diabetes: population based study // BMJ. 2002. Vol. 325. No. 7375. P. 1275−1276. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.325.7375.1275

[9] Tinker SC, Gilboa SM, Moore CA, et al. Specific birth defects in pregnancies of women with diabetes: National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997−2011. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2020;222(2):176.e1−176.e11. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.08.028

[10] Tinker S.C., Gilboa S.M., Moore C.A., et al. Specific birth defects in pregnancies of women with diabetes: National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997−2011 // Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2020. Vol. 222. No. 2. P. 176.e1−176.e11. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.08.028

[11] Köck K, Köck F, Klein K, et al. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of preterm birth with regard to the risk of spontaneous preterm birth. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2010;23(9):1004−1008. DOI: 10.3109/14767050903551392

[12] Köck K., Köck F., Klein K., et al. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of preterm birth with regard to the risk of spontaneous preterm birth // J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med. 2010. Vol. 23. No. 9. P. 1004−1008. DOI: 10.3109/14767050903551392

[13] Engineer A, Saiyin T, Greco ER, Feng Q. Say NO to ROS: Their roles in embryonic heart development and pathogenesis of congenital heart Defects in maternal diabetes. Antioxidants (Basel). 2019;8(10):436. DOI: 10.3390/antiox8100436

[14] Engineer A., Saiyin T., Greco E.R., Feng Q. Say NO to ROS: Their roles in embryonic heart development and pathogenesis of congenital heart defects in maternal diabetes // Antioxidants. 2019. Vol. 8. No. 10. P. 436. DOI: 10.3390/antiox8100436

[15] Ornoy A, Reece EA, Pavlinkova G, et al. Effect of maternal diabetes on the embryo, fetus, and children: Congenital anomalies, genetic and epigenetic changes and developmental outcomes. Birth Defects Res Part C Embryo Today Rev. 2015;105:53−72. DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.21090

[16] Ornoy A., Reece E.A., Pavlinkova G., et al. Effect of maternal diabetes on the embryo, fetus, and children: Congenital anomalies, genetic and epigenetic changes and developmental outcomes // Birth Defects Res. Part C Embryo. Today Rev. 2015. Vol. 105. P. 53–72. DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.21090

[17] Corrigan N, Brazil DP, McAuliffe F. Fetal cardiac effects of maternal hyperglycemia during pregnancy. Birth Defects Res. Part Aclinical Mol Teratol. 2009;85:523−530. DOI: 10.1002/bdra.20567

[18] Corrigan N., Brazil D.P., McAuliffe F. Fetal cardiac effects of maternal hyperglycemia during pregnancy // Birth Defects Res. Part Aclinical. Mol. Teratol. 2009. Vol. 85. P. 523–530. DOI: 10.1002/bdra.20567

[19] Correa A, Gilboa SM, Besser LM, et al. Diabetes mellitus and birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;199:237-e1. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2008.06.028

[20] Correa A., Gilboa S.M., Besser L.M., et al. Diabetes mellitus and birth defects // Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2008. Vol. 199. P. 237-e1. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2008.06.028

[21] Wei Y, Xu Q, Yang H, et al. Preconception diabetes mellitus and adverse pregnancy outcomes in over 6.4 million women: A population-based cohort study in China. PLoS Med. 2019;16:e1002926. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002926

[22] Wei Y., Xu Q., Yang H., et al. Preconception diabetes mellitus and adverse pregnancy outcomes in over 6.4 million women: A population-based cohort study in China // PLoS Med. 2019. Vol. 16. P. e1002926. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002926

[23] Zawiejska A, Wróblewska-Seniuk K, Gutaj P, et al. Early screening for gestational diabetes using IADPSG criteria may be a useful predictor for congenital anomalies: preliminary data from a high-risk population. J Clin Med. 2020;9:3553. DOI: 10.3390/jcm9113553

[24] Zawiejska A., Wróblewska-Seniuk K., Gutaj P., et al. Early screening for gestational diabetes using IADPSG criteria may be a useful predictor for congenital anomalies: preliminary data from a high-risk population // J. Clin. Med. 2020. Vol. 9. P. 3553. DOI: 10.3390/jcm9113553

[25] Sirico A, Sarno L, Zullo F, et al. Pregestational diabetes and fetal heart rate in the first trimester of pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2019;232:30−32. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2018.11.003

[26] Sirico A., Sarno L., Zullo F., et al. Pregestational diabetes and fetal heart rate in the first trimester of pregnancy // Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 2019. Vol. 232. P. 30−32. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2018.11.003

[27] Mathiesen ER, Ringholm L, Damm P. Stillbirth in diabetic pregnancies. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2011;25(1):105−111. DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2010.11.001

[28] Mathiesen E.R., Ringholm L., Damm P. Stillbirth in diabetic pregnancies // Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2011. Vol. 25. No. 1. P. 105−111. DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2010.11.001

[29] Greene MF, Hare JW, Cloherty JP, et al. First-trimester hemoglobin A1 and risk for major malformation and spontaneous abortion in diabetic pregnancy. Teratology. 1989;39:225−231. DOI: 10.1002/tera.1420390303

[30] Greene M.F., Hare J.W., Cloherty J.P., et al. First-trimester hemoglobin A1 and risk for major malformation and spontaneous abortion in diabetic pregnancy // Teratology. 1989. Vol. 39. P. 225–231. DOI: 10.1002/tera.1420390303

[31] Borsari L, Malagoli C, Werler MM, et al. Joint effect of maternal tobacco smoking and pregestational diabetes on preterm births and congenital anomalies: A population-based study in Northern Italy. J Diabetes Res. 2018;2018:2782741. DOI: 10.1155/2018/2782741

[32] Borsari L., Malagoli C., Werler M.M., et al. Joint effect of maternal tobacco smoking and pregestational diabetes on preterm births and congenital anomalies: A population-based study in Northern Italy // J. Diabetes Res. 2018. Vol. 2018. P. 2782741. DOI: 10.1155/2018/2782741

[33] Ornoy A, Becker M, Weinstein-Fudim L, Ergaz Z. Diabetes during Pregnancy: A maternal disease complicating the course of pregnancy with long-term deleterious Effects on the offspring. A clinical review. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22(6):2965. DOI: 10.3390/ijms22062965.1

[34] Ornoy A., Becker M., Weinstein-Fudim L., Ergaz Z. Diabetes during pregnancy: A maternal disease complicating the course of pregnancy with long-term deleterious effects on the offspring. A clinical review // Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021. Vol. 22. No. 6. P. 2965. DOI: 10.3390/ijms22062965.1

[35] Bitsanis D, Ghebremeskel K, Moodley T, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus enhances arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids in placental phospholipids. Lipids. 2006;41:341−346. DOI: 10.1007/s11745-006-5104-8

[36] Bitsanis D., Ghebremeskel K., Moodley T., et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus enhances arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids in placental phospholipids // Lipids. 2006. Vol. 41. P. 341−346. DOI: 10.1007/s11745-006-5104-8

[37] Kawasaki M, Arata N, Ogawa Y. Obesity and abnormal glucose tolerance in the offspring of mothers with diabetes. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2018;30:361−368. DOI: 10.1097/GCO.0000000000000479

[38] Kawasaki M., Arata N., Ogawa Y. Obesity and abnormal glucose tolerance in the offspring of mothers with diabetes // Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 2018. Vol. 30. P. 361−368. DOI: 10.1097/GCO.0000000000000479

[39] Wahabi HA, Fayed A, Esmaeil S, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of pre-pregnancy care for women with diabetes for improving maternal and perinatal outcomes. PLoS ONE. 2020;15:e0237571. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237571

[40] Wahabi H.A., Fayed A., Esmaeil S., et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of pre-pregnancy care for women with diabetes for improving maternal and perinatal outcomes // PLoS ONE. 2020. Vol. 15. P. e0237571. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237571

[41] Vieira MC, Sankaran S, Pasupathy D. Fetal macrosomia. Obstet Gynecol Reprod Med. 2020;30:146−151. DOI: 10.1016/j.ogrm.2020.02.011

[42] Vieira M.C., Sankaran S., Pasupathy D. Fetal macrosomia // Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Med. 2020. Vol. 30. P. 146−151. DOI: 10.1016/j.ogrm.2020.02.011

[43] Macrosomia: ACOG Practice Bulletin Summary, Number 216. Obstet Gynecol. 2020;135(2):246−248. DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000003607

[44] Macrosomia: ACOG Practice Bulletin Summary, Number 216 // Obstet. Gynecol. 2020. Vol. 135. No. 1. P. 246–248. DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000003607

[45] Kc K, Shakya S, Zhang H. Gestational diabetes mellitus and macrosomia: A literature review. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015;66(Suppl. 2):14–20. DOI: 10.1159/000371628

[46] Kc K., Shakya S., Zhang H. Gestational diabetes mellitus and macrosomia: A literature review // Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2015. Vol. 66. No. 2. Suppl. P. 14–20. DOI: 10.1159/000371628

[47] Visser GH, de Valk HW. Management of diabetes in pregnancy: Antenatal follow-up and decisions concerning timing and mode of delivery. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2015;29:237−243. DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2014.08.005

[48] Visser G.H., de Valk H.W. Management of diabetes in pregnancy: Antenatal follow-up and decisions concerning timing and mode of delivery // Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2015. Vol. 29. P. 37–243. DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2014.08.005

[49] Boulet SL, Alexander GR, Salihu HM, Pass M. Macrosomic births in the United States: Determinants, outcomes, and proposed grades of risk. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188:1372−1378. DOI: 10.1067/mob.[phone]

[50] Boulet S.L., Alexander G.R., Salihu H.M., Pass M. Macrosomic births in the United States: Determinants, outcomes, and proposed grades of risk // Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2003. Vol. 188. P. 1372–1378. DOI: 10.1067/mob.[phone]

[51] Stotland NE, Caughey AB, Breed EM, Escobar GJ. Risk factors and obstetric complications associated with macrosomia. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2004;87:220−226. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.08.010

[52] Stotland N.E., Caughey A.B., Breed E.M., Escobar G.J. Risk factors and obstetric complications associated with macrosomia // Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet. 2004. Vol. 87. P. 220−226. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.08.010

[53] Combs CA, Gunderson E, Kitzmiller JL, et al. Relationship of fetal macrosomia to maternal postprandial glucose control during pregnancy. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:1251. DOI: 10.2337/diacare.15.10.1251

[54] Combs C.A., Gunderson E., Kitzmiller J.L., et al. Relationship of fetal macrosomia to maternal postprandial glucose control during pregnancy // Diabetes Care. 1992. Vol. 15. P. 1251. DOI: 10.2337/diacare.15.10.1251

[55] Silverman BL, Metzger BE, Cho NH, Loeb CA. Impaired glucose tolerance in adolescent offspring of diabetic mothers. Relationship to fetal hyperinsulinism. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:611−617. DOI: 10.2337/diacare.18.5.611

[56] Silverman B.L., Metzger B.E., Cho N.H., Loeb C.A. Impaired glucose tolerance in adolescent offspring of diabetic mothers. Relationship to fetal hyperinsulinism // Diabetes Care. 1995. Vol. 18. P. 611−617. DOI: 10.2337/diacare.18.5.611

[57] Samii L, Kallas-Koeman M, Donovan LE, et al. The association between vascular complications during pregnancy in women with Type 1 diabetes and congenital malformations. Diabet Med. 2019;36:237−242. DOI: 10.1111/dme.13872

[58] Samii L., Kallas-Koeman M., Donovan L.E., et al. The association between vascular complications during pregnancy in women with Type 1 diabetes and congenital malformations // Diabet. Med. 2019. Vol. 36. P. 237−242. DOI: 10.1111/dme.13872

[59] Persson M, Shah PS, Rusconi F, et al. Association of maternal diabetes with meonatal outcomes of very preterm and very low-birth-weight infants: An international cohort study. JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172:867−875. DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.1811

[60] Persson M., Shah P.S., Rusconi F., et al. Association of maternal diabetes with neonatal outcomes of very preterm and very low-birth-weight infants: An international cohort study // JAMA Pediatr. 2018. Vol. 172. P. 867−875. DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.1811

[61] Biesenbach G, Grafinger P, Zazgornik J, Stöger H. Perinatal complications and three-year follow up of infants of diabetic mothers with diabetic nephropathy stage IV. Ren Fail. 2000;22:573−580. DOI: 10.1081/JDI-100100898

[62] Biesenbach G., Grafinger P., Zazgornik J., Stöger H. Perinatal complications and three-year follow up of infants of diabetic mothers with diabetic nephropathy stage IV // Ren. Fail. 2000. Vol. 22. P. 573–580. DOI: 10.1081/JDI-100100898

[63] Smith GC. Predicting antepartum stillbirth. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2006;18:625−630. DOI: 10.1097/GCO.0b013e32801062ff

[64] Smith G.C. Predicting antepartum stillbirth // Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 2006. Vol. 18. P. 625−630. DOI: 10.1097/GCO.0b013e32801062ff

[65] Mackin ST, Nelson SM, Kerssens JJ, et al. Diabetes and pregnancy: National trends over a 15 year period. Diabetologia. 2018;61:1081−1088. DOI: 10.1007/s00125-017-4529-3

[66] Mackin S.T., Nelson S.M., Kerssens J.J., et al. Diabetes and pregnancy: National trends over a 15 year period // Diabetologia. 2018. Vol. 61. P. 1081−1088. DOI: 10.1007/s00125-017-4529-3

[67] Dudley DJ. Diabetic-associated stillbirth: Incidence, pathophysiology, and prevention. Clin Perinatol. 2007;34:611−626. DOI: 10.1016/j.clp.2007.09.003

[68] Dudley D.J. Diabetic-associated stillbirth: Incidence, pathophysiology, and prevention // Clin. Perinatol. 2007. Vol. 34. P. 611−626. DOI: 10.1016/j.clp.2007.09.003

[69] Syed M, Javed H, Yakoob MY, Bhutta ZA. Effect of screening and management of diabetes during pregnancy on stillbirths. BMC Public Health. 2011;11(Suppl 3):S2. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-S3-S2

[70] Syed M., Javed H., Yakoob M.Y., Bhutta Z.A. Effect of screening and management of diabetes during pregnancy on stillbirths // BMC Public. Health. 2011. Vol. 11. No. 3. Suppl. P. S2. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-S3-S2

[71] Bradley RJ, Brudenell JM, Nicolaides KH. Fetal acidosis and hyperlacticaemia diagnosed by cordocentesis in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. 1991;8:464−468. DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-5491.1991.tb01633.x

[72] Bradley R.J., Brudenell J.M., Nicolaides K.H. Fetal acidosis and hyperlacticaemia diagnosed by cordocentesis in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes mellitus // Diabet. Med. 1991. Vol. 8. P. 464−468. DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-5491.1991.tb01633.x

[73] Harper LM, Tita ATN, Biggio JR, Chang JJ. Gestational age of delivery in pregnancies complicated by diabetes. Ochsner J. 2020;20:373−380. DOI: 10.31486/toj.20.0019

[74] Harper L.M., Tita A.T.N., Biggio J.R., Chang J.J. Gestational age of delivery in pregnancies complicated by diabetes // Ochsner. J. 2020. Vol. 20. No. 4. P. 373−380. DOI: 10.31486/toj.20.0019

[75] Moraitis AA, Shreeve N, Sovio U, et al. Universal third-trimester ultrasonic screening using fetal macrosomia in the prediction of adverse perinatal outcome: A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy. PLoS Med. 2020;17:e1003190. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003190

[76] Moraitis A.A., Shreeve N., Sovio U., et al. Universal third-trimester ultrasonic screening using fetal macrosomia in the prediction of adverse perinatal outcome: A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy // PLoS Med. 2020. Vol. 17. P. e1003190. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003190

[77] Shah BR, Sharifi F. Perinatal outcomes for untreated women with gestational diabetes by IADPSG criteria: A population-based study. BJOG Int J Obstet Gynaecol. 2020;127:116−122. DOI: 10.1111/1471-0528.15964

[78] Shah B.R., Sharifi F. Perinatal outcomes for untreated women with gestational diabetes by IADPSG criteria: A population-based study // BJOG. 2020. Vol. 127. P. 116−122. DOI: 10.1111/1471-0528.15964

[79] Egan AM, Danyliv A, Carmody L, et al. A prepregnancy care program for women with diabetes: Effective and cost saving. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101:1807–1815. DOI: 10.1210/jc.2015-4046

[80] Egan A.M., Danyliv A., Carmody L., et al. A prepregnancy care program for women with diabetes: Effective and cost saving // J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2016. Vol. 101. P. 1807−1815. DOI: 10.1210/jc.2015-4046

[81] Kekäläinen P, Juuti M, Walle T, Laatikainen T. Pregnancy planning in type 1 diabetic women improves glycemic control and pregnancy outcomes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29:2252–2258. DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2015.1081888

[82] Kekäläinen P., Juuti M., Walle T., Laatikainen T. Pregnancy planning in type 1 diabetic women improves glycemic control and pregnancy outcomes // J. Matern. Fetal. Neonatal. Med. 2016. Vol. 29. P. 2252−2258. DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2015.1081888

[83] Berger H, Melamed N, Davis BM, et al. Impact of diabetes, obesity and hypertension on preterm birth: Population-based study. PLoS ONE. 2020;15:e0228743. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228743

[84] Berger H., Melamed N., Davis B.M., et al. Impact of diabetes, obesity and hypertension on preterm birth: Population-based study // PLoS ONE. 2020. Vol. 15. P. e0228743. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228743

[85] Antoniou MC, Gilbert L, Gross J, et al. Potentially modifiable predictors of adverse neonatal and maternal outcomes in pregnancies with gestational diabetes mellitus: Can they help for future risk stratification and risk-adapted patient care? BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2019;19:469. DOI: 10.1186/s12884-019-2610-2

[86] Antoniou M.C., Gilbert L., Gross J., et al. Potentially modifiable predictors of adverse neonatal and maternal outcomes in pregnancies with gestational diabetes mellitus: Can they help for future risk stratification and risk-adapted patient care? // BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2019. Vol. 19. P. 469. DOI: 10.1186/s12884-019-2610-2

[87] Topcuoglu S, Karatekin G, Yavuz T, et al. The relationship between the oxidative stress and the cardiac hypertrophy in infants of diabetic mothers. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2015;109:104–109. DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2015.04.022

[88] Topcuoglu S., Karatekin G., Yavuz T., et al. The relationship between the oxidative stress and the cardiac hypertrophy in infants of diabetic mothers // Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2015. Vol. 109. P. 104−109. DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2015.04.022

[89] Patey O, Carvalho JS, Thilaganathan B. Perinatal changes in fetal cardiac geometry and function in diabetic pregnancy at term. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2019;54:634–642. DOI: 10.1002/uog.20187

[90] Patey O., Carvalho J.S., Thilaganathan B. Perinatal changes in fetal cardiac geometry and function in diabetic pregnancy at term // Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 2019. Vol. 54. P. 634−642. DOI: 10.1002/uog.20187

[91] Kawakita T, Bowers K, Hazrati S, et al. Increased neonatal respiratory morbidity associated with gestational and pregestational diabetes: A retrospective study. Am J Perinatol. 2017;34:1160–1168. DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1604414

[92] Kawakita T., Bowers K., Hazrati S., et al. Increased neonatal respiratory morbidity associated with gestational and pregestational diabetes: A retrospective study // Am. J. Perinatol. 2017. Vol. 34. P. 1160−1168. DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1604414

[93] Cnattingius S, Lindam A, Persson M. Risks of asphyxia-related neonatal complications in offspring of mothers with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: The impact of maternal overweight and obesity. Diabetologia. 2017;60:1244–1251. DOI: 10.1007/s00125-017-4279-2

[94] Cnattingius S., Lindam A., Persson M. Risks of asphyxia-related neonatal complications in offspring of mothers with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: The impact of maternal overweight and obesity // Diabetologia. 2017. Vol. 60. P. 1244–1251. DOI: 10.1007/s00125-017-4279-2

[95] Riskin A, Itzchaki O, Bader D, et al. Perinatal outcomes in infants of mothers with diabetes in pregnancy. Isr Med Assoc J. 2020;22:569–575.

[96] Riskin A., Itzchaki O., Bader D., et al. Perinatal outcomes in infants of mothers with diabetes in pregnancy // Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 2020. Vol. 22. P. 569−575

[97] Yu L, Zeng XL, Cheng ML, et al. Quantitative assessment of the effect of pre-gestational diabetes and risk of adverse maternal, perinatal and neonatal outcomes. Oncotarget. 2017;8:61048–61056. DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17824

[98] Yu L., Zeng X.L., Cheng M.L., et al. Quantitative assessment of the effect of pre-gestational diabetes and risk of adverse maternal, perinatal and neonatal outcomes // Oncotarget. 2017. Vol. 8. P. 61048−61056. DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17824

[99] Feig DS, Donovan LE, Corcoy R, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes (CONCEPTT): A multicentre international randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2017;390:2347–2359. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32400-5

[100] Feig D.S., Donovan L.E., Corcoy R., et al. Continuous glucose monitoring in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes (CONCEPTT): A multicentre international randomised controlled trial // Lancet. 2017. Vol. 390. P. 2347−2359. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32400-5

[101] Foster W, Myllynen P, Winn LM, et al. Reactive oxygen species, diabetes and toxicity in the placenta − a workshop report. Placenta. 2008;29(Suppl A):S105−S107. DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2007.10.014

[102] Foster W., Myllynen P., Winn L.M., et al. Reactive oxygen species, diabetes and toxicity in the placenta − a workshop report // Placenta. 2008. Vol. 29. Suppl. A. P. S105−S107. DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2007.10.014

[103] Churchill JA, Berendes HW, Nemore J. Neuropsychological deficits in children of diabetic mothers. A report from the Collaborative Sdy of Cerebral Palsy. Am J Obs Gynecol. 1969;105:257–268. DOI: 10.1016/0002-9378(69)90067-2

[104] Churchill J.A., Berendes H.W., Nemore J. Neuropsychological deficits in children of diabetic mothers. A report from the Collaborative Sdy of Cerebral Palsy // Am. J. Obs. Gynecol. 1969. Vol. 105. P. 257−268. DOI: 10.1016/0002-9378(69)90067-2

[105] Stehbens JA, Baker GL, Kitchell M. Outcome at ages 1, 3, and 5 years of children born to diabetic women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977;127:408–413. DOI: 10.1016/0002-9378(77)90499-9

[106] Stehbens J.A., Baker G.L., Kitchell M. Outcome at ages 1, 3, and 5 years of children born to diabetic women // Am. J. Obs. Gynecol. 1977. Vol. 127. P. 408−413. DOI: 10.1016/0002-9378(77)90499-9

[107] Petersen MB. Status at 4–5 Years in 90 children of insulin-dependent diabetic mothers. In: Stowers SH, editor. Carbohydrate metabolism in pregnancy and the newborn. New York: Springer; 1989: 354−361.

[108] Petersen M.B. Status at 4-5 years in 90 children of insulin-dependent diabetic mothers. In: Stowers S.H., editor. Carbohydrate metabolism in pregnancy and the newborn. New York: Springer, 1989. P. 354−361.

[109] Cummins M, Norrish M. Follow-up of children of diabetic mothers. Arch Dis Child. 1980;55:259−264. DOI: 10.1136/adc.55.4.259.

[110] Cummins M., Norrish M. Follow-up of children of diabetic mothers // Arch. Dis. Child. 1980. Vol. 55. P. 259−264. DOI: 10.1136/adc.55.4.259

[111] Persson B, Gentz J. Follow-up of children of insulin-dependent and gestational diabetic mothers. Neuropsychological outcome. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1984;73:349−358. DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb17747.x

[112] Persson B., Gentz J. Follow-up of children of insulin-dependent and gestational diabetic mothers. Neuropsychological outcome // Acta Paediatr. Scand. 1984. Vol. 73. P. 349−358. DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb17747.x

[113] Murphy HR, Howgate C, O’Keefe J, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of pregnant women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: a 5-year national population-based cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021;9(3):153−164. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30406-X

[114] Murphy H.R., Howgate C., O’Keefe J., et al. Characteristics and outcomes of pregnant women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: a 5-year national population-based cohort study // Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021. Vol. 9. No. 3. P. 153−164. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30406-X

[115] Wahabi H, Fayed A, Esmaeil S, Mamdouh H, Kotb R. Prevalence and complications of pregestational and gestational diabetes in saudi women: Analysis from riyadh mother and baby cohort study (RAHMA). Biomed Res Int. 2017;2017:6878263. DOI: 10.1155/2017/6878263

[116] Wahabi H., Fayed A., Esmaeil S., et al. Prevalence and complications of pregestational and gestational diabetes in saudi women: Analysis from riyadh mother and baby cohort study (RAHMA) // Biomed. Res. Int. 2017. Vol. 2017. P. 6878263. DOI: 10.1155/2017/6878263

[117] Wilson RD; Genetics Committee, Wilson RD, et al. Pre-conception folic acid and multivitamin supplementation for the primary and secondary prevention of neural tube defects and other folic acid-sensitive congenital anomalies. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2015;37(6):534−552. DOI: 10.1016/s1701-2163(15)30230-9

[118] Wilson R.D, Genetics Committee; Wilson R.D., et al. Pre-conception folic acid and multivitamin supplementation for the primary and secondary prevention of neural tube defects and other folic acid-sensitive congenital anomalies // J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can. 2015. Vol. 37. No. 6. P. 534−552. DOI: 10.1016/s1701-2163(15)30230-9

[119] Ludvigsson JF, Neovius M, Soderling J, et al. Periconception glycaemic control in women with type 1 diabetes and risk of major birth defects: population based cohort study in Sweden. BMJ. 2018;362:k2638. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.k2638

[120] Ludvigsson J.F., Neovius M., Söderling J., et al. Periconception glycaemic control in women with type 1 diabetes and risk of major birth defects: population based cohort study in Sweden // BMJ. 2018. Vol. 362. P. k2638. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.k2638

[121] Wotherspoon AC, Young IS, Patterson CC, et al.; Diabetes and Pre-eclampsia Intervention Trial (DAPIT) Study Group. Effect of pregnancy planning on maternal and neonatal outcomes in women with Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med. 2017;34(9):1303−1308. DOI: 10.1111/dme.13398

[122] Wotherspoon A.C., Young I.S., Patterson C.C., et al; Diabetes and Pre-eclampsia Intervention Trial (DAPIT) Study Group. Effect of pregnancy planning on maternal and neonatal outcomes in women with Type 1 diabetes // Diabet Med. 2017. Vol. 34. No. 9. P. 1303−1308. DOI: 10.1111/dme.13398

[123] NICE. [Internet]. Diabetes in pregnancy: management of diabetes and its complications from preconception to the postnatal period. 2015. [cited 2022 Jan 14]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3/resources/diabetes-in-pregnancy-management-from-preconception-to-the-postnatal-period-pdf-51038446021

[124] NICE. [Internet]. Diabetes in pregnancy: management of diabetes and its complications from preconception to the postnatal period. 2015. [дата обращения: 14 Jan 2022]. Доступ по ссылке: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3/resources/diabetes-in-pregnancy-management-from-preconception-to-the-postnatal-period-pdf-51038446021

[125] Yamamoto JM, Hughes DJF, Evans ML, et al. Community-based pre-pregnancy care programme improves pregnancy preparation in women with pregestational diabetes. Diabetologia. 2018;61(7):1528−1537. DOI: 10.1007/s00125-018-4613-3

[126] Yamamoto J.M., Hughes D.J.F., Evans M.L., et al. Community-based pre-pregnancy care programme improves pregnancy preparation in women with pregestational diabetes // Diabetologia. 2018. Vol. 61. No. 7. P. 1528–1537. DOI: 10.1007/s00125-018-4613-3

[127] Tisel’ko AV. Sakharnyy diabet 1 tipa i beremennost’: otsenka variabel’nosti glikemicheskogo profilya kak osnova strategii insulinoterapii: [dissertation abstract]. Saint Petersburg, 2018. (In Russ.). [cited 2022 Jan 14]. Available from: https://vmeda.mil.ru/upload/site56/document_file/3uQ3oKxJNZ.pdf

[128] Тиселько А.В. Сахарный диабет 1 типа и беременность: оценка вариабельности гликемического профиля как основа стратегии инсулинотерапии: автореф. дис. … д-ра мед. наук. СПб, 2018. [дата обращения: 14 Jan 2022]. Доступ по ссылке: https://vmeda.mil.ru/upload/site56/document_file/3uQ3oKxJNZ.pdf

[129] Mourou L, Vallone V, Vania E, et al. Assessment of the effect of pregnancy planning in women with type 1 diabetes treated by insulin pump. Acta Diabetol. 2021;58(3):355−362. DOI: 10.1007/s00592-020-01620-7

[130] Mourou L., Vallone V., Vania E., et al. Assessment of the effect of pregnancy planning in women with type 1 diabetes treated by insulin pump // Acta Diabetol. 2021. Vol. 58. No. 3. P. 355−362. DOI: 10.1007/s00592-020-01620-7

[131] Borovik NV, Musina ЕV, Tiselko AV, et al. Pregnancy planning in women with diabetes mellitus type 2. Journal of obstetrics and women’s diseases. 2021. Vol. 70. No. 3. P. 11−19. DOI: 10.17816/JOWD58667

[132] Боровик Н.В., Мусина Е.В., Тиселько А.В., и др. Влияние прегравидарной подготовки на течение и исход беременности у женщин с сахарным диабетом 2-го типа // Журнал акушерства и женских болезней. 2021. Т. 70. № 3. C. 11−19. DOI: 10.17816/JOWD58667

[133] Tiselko AV, Yarmolinskaya MI, Misharina EV, Milyutina YuP. Evaluation of glycaemic profile variability as a basis for insulin therapy strategy in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes mellitus. 2019;22(6):526−535. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.14341/DM10214

[134] Тиселько А.В., Ярмолинская М.И., Мишарина Е.В., Милютина Ю.П. Оценка вариабельности гликемического профиля как основа стратегии инсулинотерапии у беременных с сахарным диабетом 1 типа // Сахарный диабет. 2019. Т. 22. № 6. C. 526−535. DOI: 10.14341/DM10214

[135] Peterson C, Grosse SD, Li R, et al. Preventable health and cost burden of adverse birth outcomes associated with pregestational diabetes in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;212(1):74.e1−74.e749. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2014.09.009

[136] Peterson C., Grosse S.D., Li R., et al. Preventable health and cost burden of adverse birth outcomes associated with pregestational diabetes in the United States // Am. J. Obstet. Gyneco. 2015. Vol. 212. No. 1. P. 74e1-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2014.09.009

[137] Aylamazyan EK, editor. Sakharnyy diabet i reproduktivnaya sistema zhenshchiny: rukovodstvo dlya vrachey. Moscow: GEOTAR-Media; 2017.

[138] Сахарный диабет и репродуктивная система женщины: руководство для врачей / под ред. Э.К. Айламазяна. М.: ГЭОТАР-Медиа, 2017.

[139] Wellings K, Jones KG, Mercer CH, et al. The prevalence of unplanned pregnancy and associated factors in Britain: findings from the third National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal-3). Lancet. 2013;382(9907):1807−1816. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62071-1

[140] Wellings K., Jones K.G., Mercer C.H., et al. The prevalence of unplanned pregnancy and associated factors in Britain: findings from the third National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal-3) // Lancet. 2013. Vol. 382. No. 9907. P. 1807−1816. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62071-1

[141] Forde R, Patelarou EE, Forbes A. The experiences of prepregnancy care for women with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-synthesis. Int J Womens Health. 2016;8:691−703. DOI: 10.2147/IJWH.S115955

[142] Forde R., Patelarou E.E., Forbes A. The experiences of prepregnancy care for women with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-synthesis // Int. J. Women’s Health. 2016. Vol. 8. P. 691–703. DOI: 10.2147/IJWH.S115955

[143] Tisel’ko AV, Yarmolinskaya MI, Borovik NV, et al. The functional status of the kidneys in pregnant women with diabetes mellitus (type 1) when using continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion and continuous monitoring of blood glucose levels. Russian Bulletin of Obstetrician-Gynecologist. 2020;20(6):56−64. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.17116/rosakush20202006156

[144] Тиселько А.В., Ярмолинская М.И., Боровик Н.В., и др. Функциональное состояние почек у беременных с сахарным диабетом 1-го типа при использовании постоянной подкожной инфузии инсулина и непрерывного мониторирования уровня глюкозы в крови. Российский вестник акушера-гинеколога. 2020. Т. 20. № 6. С. 56–64. DOI: 10.17116/rosakush20202006156

[145] Carrasco Falcón S, Vega Guedes B, Alvarado-Martel D, Wägner AM. Preconception care in diabetes: Predisposing factors and barriers. Control preconcepcional en la diabetes: factores predisponentes y barreras. Endocrinol Diabetes Nutr (Engl Ed). 2018;65(3):164−171. DOI: 10.1016/j.endinu.2017.10.014

[146] Carrasco Falcón S., Vega Guedes B., Alvarado-Martel D., Wägner A.M. Preconception care in diabetes: Predisposing factors and barriers. Control preconcepcional en la diabetes: factores predisponentes y barreras // Endocrinol. Diabetes Nutr. (Engl. Ed.). 2018. Vol. 65. No. 3. P. 164–171. DOI: 10.1016/j.endinu.2017.10.014

[147] Bérard A, Le Tiec M, De Vera MA. Study of the costs and morbidities of late-preterm birth. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2012;97(5):F329−F334. DOI: 10.1136/fetalneonatal-2011-300969

[148] Bérard A., Le Tiec M., De Vera M.A. Study of the costs and morbidities of late-preterm birth // Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal. Neonatal. Ed. 2012. Vol. 97. No. 5. P. F329–F334. DOI: 10.1136/fetalneonatal-2011-300969

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Misharina E.V., Yarmolinskaya M.I., Tiselko A.V.