Etiopathogenic bases for patellofemoral arthritis development

Abstract

Patellofemoral arthritis is nowadays an actual issue of traumatology and orthopedics. High prevalence of this pathology around the world (6.9 to 36.1%) is associated with multiple etiological causes, responsible for certain difficulties in diagnosis and complexity of determining an individualized pathogenetic method of treatment. The pathology, often occurring in the young age, is called «delayed or late arthritis», due to the fact that it is often ignored in the early stages of its development. This leads, in the final stages of disease, to manifestation of classic osteoarthritis involving all the structures of the knee joint in the process. The literature review is devoted to the study of etiology, pathogenesis and anatomical features of the development of patellofemoral arthritis. From the clinical point of view, the most important factors, influencing patellofemoral arthritis course, are analyzed. They include mechanisms of the disease, anatomical features of patella, trochlear surface and femoral condyles, which affect the disease course. The article discusses the risk factors of patellofemoral arthritis, such as weakness of vastus muscles of quadriceps femoris, increased knee Q-angle, increased femoral anteversion and tibial rotation, abnormalities of patellar and tibial epicondyles morphology. In addition the study presents some data about dysplasia of the condyles and femoral trochlea and patella, disposition of the patella and dysplasia of the quadriceps. Variations of configuration and position of patella affecting its stability are described and presented. The article also focuses on the influence of internal tibial rotation and femoral anteversion on the development of disease, as well as patellar instability as a multifactorial cause.

Keywords

patellofemoral arthritis / etiology and pathogenesis / anatomical features

References

[1] Maksimova S.G., Noyanzina O.E., Goncharova N.P. et al. Socio-economic factors in the formation of adaptive strategies for people of older age groups in the context of intergenerational interaction. Vestnik AGAU. 2011; 11: 123–127. (In Russ.)

[2] Максимова С.Г., Ноянзина О.Е., Гончарова Н.П. и др. Социально-экономические факторы формирования адаптивных стратегий лиц старших возрастных групп в контексте межпоколенческого взаимодействия. Вестник АГАУ. 2011; 11: 123-127.

[3] Maksimova S.G., Avdeeva G.S., Goncharova N.P. et al. Modeli konstruirovaniya novoy gerontologicheskoy real'nosti i adaptivnye strategii naseleniya Rossii. (Models for constructing a new gerontological reality and adaptive strategies for the population of Russia.) Monograph ed. by S.G. Maksimova. Barnaul: AZBUKA. 2013; 495 р. (In Russ.)

[4] Максимова С.Г., Авдеева Г.С., Гончарова Н.П. и др. Модели конструирования новой геронтологической реальности и адаптивные стратегии населения России. Монография под общ. ред. С.Г. Максимовой. Барнаул: АЗБУКА. 2013; 495 с.

[5] Matveev R.P., Bragina S.V. Knee joint osteoarthrosis: problems and social significance. Ekologiya cheloveka. 2012; (9): 53–62. (In Russ.)

[6] Матвеев Р.П., Брагина С.В. Остеоартроз коленного сустава: проблемы и социальная значимость. Экология человека. 2012; (9): 53-62.

[7] Bardoloi B., Bhutia Ch., Bhatia D., Paul S. Knee osteoarthritis: An overview of recent interventions. JBEB. 2017; (4): 1–18.

[8] Bardoloi B., Bhutia Ch., Bhatia D., Paul S. Knee osteoarthritis: An overview of recent interventions. JBEB. 2017; (4): 1-18.

[9] Aguilar H.N., Battié M.C., Jaremko J.L. MRI-based hip cartilage measures in osteoarthritic and non-osteoarthritic individuals: a systematic review. RMD Open. 2017; 1 (3): 34–59. DOI: 10.1136/rmdopen-2016-000358.

[10] Aguilar H.N., Battié M.C., Jaremko J.L. MRI-based hip cartilage measures in osteoarthritic and non-osteoarthritic individuals: a systematic review. RMD Open. 2017; 1 (3): 34-59. DOI: 10.1136/rmdopen-2016-000358.

[11] Uryas'ev O.M., Zaigrova N.A. Osteoarthritis: pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment. Zemskiy vrach. 2016; (1): 27–35. (In Russ.)

[12] Урясьев О.М., Заигрова Н.А. Остеоартрит: патогенез, диагностика, лечение. Земский врач. 2016; (1): 27-35.

[13] Matveev R.P., Bragina S.V. Konservativnoe lechenie osteoartroza kolennogo sustava v praktike vracha-travmatologa-ortopeda. (Conservative treatment of knee osteoarthritis in the practice of a traumatologist orthopedist.) Study guide. Arkhangel'sk: FGBOU VO «Severnyy gosudarstvennyy meditsinskiy universitet». 2017; 139 р. (In Russ.)

[14] Матвеев Р.П., Брагина С.В. Консервативное лечение остеоартроза коленного сустава в практике врача-травматолога-ортопеда. Учебное пособие. Архангельск: ФГБОУ ВО «Северный государственный медицинский университет». 2017; 139 с.

[15] Sadykov R.Sh., Bogatov V.B., Norkin A.I. «Errors» in the plasty of the anterior cruciate ligament with an artificial graft. Vrach-aspirant. 2015; 72 (5): 218–223. (In Russ.)

[16] Садыков Р.Ш., Богатов В.Б., Норкин А.И. «Ошибки» при пластике передней крестообразной связки искусственным трансплантатом. Врач-аспирант. 2015; 72 (5): 218-223.

[17] Placella G., Tei M., Sebastiani E. et al. Anatomy of the medial patello-femoral ligament: a systematic review of the last 20 years literature. Musculoskelet. Surg. 2015; 99 (2): 93–103. DOI: 10.1007/s12306-014-0335-y.

[18] Placella G., Tei M., Sebastiani E. et al. Anatomy of the medial patello-femoral ligament: a systematic review of the last 20 years literature. Musculoskelet. Surg. 2015; 99 (2): 93-103. DOI: 10.1007/s12306-014-0335-y.

[19] Neogi T. The epidemiology and impact of pain in osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. 2013; 21 (9): 1145–1153. DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2013.03.018.

[20] Neogi T. The epidemiology and impact of pain in osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. 2013; 21 (9): 1145-1153. DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2013.03.018.

[21] Peat G., Duncan R.C., Wood L.R.J. et al. Clinical features of symptomatic patellofemoral joint osteoarthritis. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 2012; 14: 63. DOI: 10.1186/ar3779.

[22] Tangtrakulwanich B., Suwanno P. Epidemiology and risk factors of patellofemoral osteoarthritis in adults: A Population-Based Study in Southern Thailand. J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 2012; 95 (8): 1048–1052. PMID: 23061309.

[23] Tangtrakulwanich B., Suwanno P. Epidemiology and risk factors of patellofemoral osteoarthritis in adults: A Population-Based Study in Southern Thailand. J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 2012; 95 (8): 1048-1052. PMID: 23061309.

[24] Musumeci G. Functional anatomy in knee osteoarthritis: Patellofemoral joint vs. tibiofemoral joint. J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2017; 2 (8): 63–84. DOI: 10.3390/jfmk2010008.

[25] Musumeci G. Functional anatomy in knee osteoarthritis: Patellofemoral joint vs. tibiofemoral joint. J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2017; 2 (8): 63-84. DOI: 10.3390/jfmk2010008.

[26] Allen K.D., Golightly Y.M. Epidemiology of osteoarthritis: state of the evidence. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 2015; 27 (3): 276–283. DOI: 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000161.

[27] Allen K.D., Golightly Y.M. Epidemiology of osteoarthritis: state of the evidence. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 2015; 27 (3): 276-283. DOI: 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000161.

[28] Balcarek P., Rehn S., Howells N.R. Results of medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction compared with trochleoplasty plus individual extensor apparatus balancing in patellar instability caused by severe trochlear dysplasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2016; 25 (12): 3869–3877. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-016-4365-x.

[29] Balcarek P., Rehn S., Howells N.R. Results of medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction compared with trochleoplasty plus individual extensor apparatus balancing in patellar instability caused by severe trochlear dysplasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2016; 25 (12): 3869-3877. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-016-4365-x.

[30] Wood L., Muller S., Peat G. The epidemiology of patellofemoral disorders in adulthood: a review of routine general practice morbidity recording. Prim. Health Care Res. Dev. 2011; 12 (2): 157–164. DOI: 10.1017/S1463423610000460.

[31] Wood L., Muller S., Peat G. The epidemiology of patellofemoral disorders in adulthood: a review of routine general practice morbidity recording. Prim. Health Care Res. Dev. 2011; 12 (2): 157-164. DOI: 10.1017/S1463423610000460.

[32] Michaleff Z.A., Campbell P., Protheroe J. et al. Consultation patterns of children and adolescents with knee pain in UK general practice: analysis of medical records. BMC Musculoskeletal. Disorders. 2017; 18: 239. DOI: 10.1186/s12891-017-1586-1.

[33] Stephen J.M., Lumpaopong P., Dodds A.L. et. al. The effect of tibial tuberosity medialization and lateralization on patellofemoral joint kinematics, contact mechanics, and stability. Am. J. Sports Med. 2015; 43: 186–194. DOI: 10.1177/0363546514554553.

[34] Stephen J.M., Lumpaopong P., Dodds A.L. et. al. The effect of tibial tuberosity medialization and lateralization on patellofemoral joint kinematics, contact mechanics, and stability. Am. J. Sports Med. 2015; 43: 186-194. DOI: 10.1177/0363546514554553.

[35] Nunes G., Stapait E., Kirsten M. et al. Clinical test for diagnosis of patellofemoral pain syndrome: systematic review with meta-analysis. Phys. Ther. Sport. 2013; 14 (1): 54–59. DOI: 10.1016/j.ptsp.2012.11.003.

[36] Nunes G., Stapait E., Kirsten M. et al. Clinical test for diagnosis of patellofemoral pain syndrome: systematic review with meta-analysis. Phys. Ther. Sport. 2013; 14 (1): 54-59. DOI: 10.1016/j.ptsp.2012.11.003.

[37] Zaytseva E.M., Alekseeva L.I., Nasonov E.L. Pathogenesis of osteoarthrosis and substantiation of the use of strontium ranelate. Nauchno-prakticheskaya revmatologiya. 2013; 51 (6): 696–702. (In Russ.)

[38] Зайцева Е.М., Алексеева Л.И., Насонов Е.Л. Патогенез остеоартроза и обоснование применения стронция ранелата. Науч.-практ. ревматол. 2013; 51 (6): 696-702. DOI: 10.14412/1995-4484-2013-696-702.

[39] Садыков Р.Ш., Богатов В.Б., Норкин А.И. Исходы пластики передней крестообразной связки коленного сустава у детей с открытыми зонами роста. Ортопедия, травматол. и восстановительн. хир. детского возраста. 2016; 4 (3): 26–31. [Sadykov R.Sh.,

[40] Садыков Р.Ш., Богатов В.Б., Норкин А.И. Исходы пластики передней крестообразной связки коленного сустава у детей с открытыми зонами роста. Ортопедия, травматол. и восстановительн. хир. детского возраста. 2016; 4 (3): 26-31.

[41] Bogatov V.B., Norkin A.I. Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in children with open growth plates. Ortopediya, travmatologiya i vosstanovitel'naya khirurgiya detsko govozrasta. 2016; 4 (3): 26–31. (In Russ.)]

[42] Сертакова А.В., Морозова О.Л., Норкин И.А. и др. Дисплазия тазобедренных суставов детского возраста: современный подход и возможности диагностики (обзор литературы). Вестн. РАМН. 2017; 72 (3): 195-202. DOI: 10.15690/vramn806.

[43] Sertakova A.V., Morozova O.L., Norkin I.A. et al. Dysplasia of hip joints of childhood: a modern approach and diagnostic capabilities (review of literature). Vestnik RAMN. 2017; 72 (3): 195–202. (In Russ.)

[44] Bijlsma J.W.J., Berenbaum F., Lafeber F.P.J.G. Osteoarthritis: an update with relevance for clinical practice. Lancet. 2011; 377: 2115-2126. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60243-2.

[45] Bijlsma J.W.J., Berenbaum F., Lafeber F.P.J.G. Osteoarthritis: an update with relevance for clinical practice. Lancet. 2011; 377: 2115–2126. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60243-2.

[46] Омельяненко Н.П., Слуцкий Л.И. Соединительная ткань (гистофизиология и биохимия). В 3 т. М.: Известия. 2009; 1: 112-128.

[47] Omel'yanenko N.P., Slutskiy L.I. Soedinitel'naya tkan' (gistofiziologiya i biokhimiya). (Connective tissue (histophysiology and biochemistry).) In 3 vol. Moscow: Izvestiya. 2009; 1: 112–128. (In Russ.)

[48] Кавалерский Г.М., Мурылев В.Ю., Рукин Я.А., и др. Возможности компьютерной навигации при первичном тотальном эндопротезировании коленного сустава. Вестн. травматол. и ортопедии им. Н.Н. Приорова. 2012; (4): 27-31.

[49] Kavalerskiy G.M., Murylyov V.Yu., Rukin Ya.A. et al. Potentialities of computed navigation at primary total knee replacement. Vestnik travmatologii i ortopedii im. N.N. Priorova. 2012; (4): 27–31. (In Russ.)

[50] Слуцкий Л.И., Павлова В.Н., Павлов Г.Г., Шостак Н.А. Сустав: морфология, клиника, диагностика, лечение. М.: МИА. 2011; 552 с.

[51] Slutskiy L.I., Pavlova V.N., Pavlov G.G., Shostak N.A. Sustav: morfologiya, klinika, diagnostika, lechenie. (Joint: morphology, clinic, diagnosis, treatment.) Moscow: MIA. 2011; 552 p. (In Russ.)

[52] Чеснокова Н.П., Захарова Н.Б., Попков В.М. Цитокины: биологическая роль в развитии реакций адаптации и повреждения в условиях нормы и патологии различного генеза. Изд-во Саратовского гос. мед. ун-та. 2016; 446 с.

[53] Chesnokova N.P., Zakharova N.B., Popkov V.M. Tsitokiny: biologicheskaya rol' v razvitii reaktsiy adaptatsii i povrezhdeniya v usloviyakh normy i patologii razlichnogo geneza. (Cytokines: a biological role in the development of adaptation and damage reactions in conditions of normal and pathology of various genesis.) Izdatel’stvo Saratovskogo gosudarstvennogo meditsinskogo universiteta. 2016; 446 р. (In Russ.)

[54] Waris V. Osteogenetic growth factors around loosened hip replacements. Academic dissertation to be presented by permission of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Helsinki for public discussion in the main auditorium of Mikkeli Central Hospital. 24.01 2014.

[55] Waris V. Osteogenetic growth factors around loosened hip replacements. Academic dissertation to be presented by permission of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Helsinki for public discussion in the main auditorium of Mikkeli Central Hospital. 24.01 2014.

[56] Tsuda E., Ishibashi Y., Yamamoto Y., Maeda S. Incidence and radiologic predictor of postoperative patellar instability after Fulkerson procedure of the tibial tuberosity for recurrent patellar dislocation. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2012; 20 (10): 2062-2070. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-011-1832-2.

[57] Tsuda E., Ishibashi Y., Yamamoto Y., Maeda S. Incidence and radiologic predictor of postoperative patellar instability after Fulkerson procedure of the tibial tuberosity for recurrent patellar dislocation. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2012; 20 (10): 2062–2070. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-011-1832-2.

[58] Kader D.F., Hosam E.M., Caplan N. Patellofemoral joint instability: A review of current concepts. J. Orthop. Trauma. 2016; 6: 8. DOI: 10.4303/jot/235979.

[59] Kader D.F., Hosam E.M., Caplan N. Patellofemoral joint instability: A review of current concepts. J. Orthop. Trauma. 2016; 6: 8. DOI: 10.4303/jot/235979.

[60] Zaffagnini S., Grassi A., Zocco G. et al. The patellofemoral joint: from dysplasia to dislocation. EFFORT Open Rev. 2017; 2: 101-111. DOI: 10.1302/2058-5241.2.16081.

[61] Zaffagnini S., Grassi A., Zocco G. et al. The patellofemoral joint: from dysplasia to dislocation. EFFORT Open Rev. 2017; 2: 101–111. DOI: 10.1302/2058-5241.2.16081.

[62] Wiberg G. Roentgenographic and anatomic studies on the patellofemoral joint with special reference to chondromalacia patella. Acta Orthop. Scand. 1941; 12: 319-410. DOI: 10.3109/17453674108988818.

[63] Wiberg G. Roentgenographic and anatomic studies on the patellofemoral joint with special reference to chondromalacia patella. Acta Orthop. Scand. 1941; 12: 319–410. DOI: 10.3109/17453674108988818.

[64] Van Haver A., De Roo K., de Beule M. et al. The effect of trochlear dysplasia on patellofemoral biomechanics: a cadaveric study with simulated trochlear deformities. Am. J. Sports Med. 2015; 43: 1354-1361. DOI: 10.1177/0363546515572143.

[65] Van Haver A., De Roo K., de Beule M. et al. The effect of trochlear dysplasia on patellofemoral biomechanics: a cadaveric study with simulated trochlear deformities. Am. J. Sports Med. 2015; 43: 1354–1361. DOI: 10.1177/0363546515572143.

[66] Кавалерский Г.М., Мурылев В.Ю., Холодаев М.Ю. др. Нарушения разгибательного аппарата после первичного и ревизионного эндопротезирования коленного сустава. Вестн. травматол. и ортопедии им. Н.Н. Приорова. 2014; (4): 31-37.

[67] Kavalerskiy G.M., Murylyov V.Y., Kholodaev M.Y. et al. Disturbance of extensor mechanism after primary and revision knee arthroplasty. Vestnik travmatologii i ortopedii imeni N.N. Priorova. 2014; (4): 31–37. (In Russ.)

[68] Cerciello S., Lustig S., Costanzo G., Neyret P. Medial retinaculum reefing for the treatment for patellar instability. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2014; 22 (10): 2505-2512. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-014-3171-6.

[69] Cerciello S., Lustig S., Costanzo G., Neyret P. Medial retinaculum reefing for the treatment for patellar instability. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2014; 22 (10): 2505–2512. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-014-3171-6.

[70] Drexler M., Dwyer T., Dolkart O. et al. Tibial rotational osteotomy and distal tuberosity transfer for patella subluxation secondary to excessive external tibial torsion: surgical technique and clinical outcome. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2014; 22 (11): 2682-2689. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-013-2561-5.

[71] Drexler M., Dwyer T., Dolkart O. et al. Tibial rotational osteotomy and distal tuberosity transfer for patella subluxation secondary to excessive external tibial torsion: surgical technique and clinical outcome. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2014; 22 (11): 2682–2689. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-013-2561-5.

[72] Lee Y.S., Lee B.K., Lee S.H. et al. Effect of foot rotation on the mechanical axis and correlation between knee and whole leg radiographs. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2013; 21 (11): 2542-2547. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-013-2419-x.

[73] Lee Y.S., Lee B.K., Lee S.H. et al. Effect of foot rotation on the mechanical axis and correlation between knee and whole leg radiographs. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2013; 21 (11): 2542–2547. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-013-2419-x.

[74] Arazpour M., Bahramian F., Aboutorabi A. et al. The effect of patellofemoral pain syndrome on gait parameters: A literature review. Arch. Bone Jt. Surg. 2016; 4 (4): 298-306. PMID: 27847840.

[75] Arazpour M., Bahramian F., Aboutorabi A. et al. The effect of patellofemoral pain syndrome on gait parameters: A literature review. Arch. Bone Jt. Surg. 2016; 4 (4): 298–306. PMID: 27847840.

[76] Erkocak O.F., Altan E., Altintas M. et al. Lower extremity rotational deformities and patellofemoral alignment parameters in patients with anterior knee pain. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2016; 24 (9): 3011-3020. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-015-3611-y.

[77] Erkocak O.F., Altan E., Altintas M. et al. Lower extremity rotational deformities and patellofemoral alignment parameters in patients with anterior knee pain. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2016; 24 (9): 3011–3020. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-015-3611-y.

[78] Stevens P.M., Gililland J.M., Anderson L.A. et al. Success of torsional correction surgery after failed surgeries for patellofemoral pain and instability. Strateg. Trauma Limb. Reconstr. 2014; 9 (1): 5-12. DOI: 10.1007/s11751-013-0181-8.

[79] Stevens P.M., Gililland J.M., Anderson L.A. et al. Success of torsional correction surgery after failed surgeries for patellofemoral pain and instability. Strateg. Trauma Limb. Reconstr. 2014; 9 (1): 5–12. DOI: 10.1007/s11751-013-0181-8.

[80] Pastides P.S., Dodd M., Gupte C.M. Patellofemoral instability: Anatomy, classification, aetiology and review of treatment options. Ann. Orthop. Rheumatol. 2014; 2 (4): 1035.

[81] Pastides P.S., Dodd M., Gupte C.M. Patellofemoral instability: Anatomy, classification, aetiology and review of treatment options. Ann. Orthop. Rheumatol. 2014; 2 (4): 1035.

[82] Кузнецов И.А., Рябинин М.В., Рыбин А.В., Соседов П.Ю. Способ реконструкции медиальной пателлофеморальной связки. Патент РФ №2520254. Бюлл. №17 от 20.06.2014. .

[83] Kuznetsov I.A., Ryabinin M.V., Rybin A.V., Sosedov P.Yu. A method for medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction. Patent for invention RF №2520254. Bulletin №17 issued at 20.06.2014. (In Russ.)

[84] Zaffagnini S., Giordano G., Bruni D. et al. Pathophysiology of lateral patellar dislocation. 2010. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-05424-2_2.

[85] Zaffagnini S., Giordano G., Bruni D. et al. Pathophysiology of lateral patellar dislocation. 2010. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-05424-2_2.

[86] Zaffagnini S., Dejour D., Arendt E.A. Patellofemoral pain, instability, and arthritis. Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York: Springer. 2010; 331 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-05424-2.

[87] Zaffagnini S., Dejour D., Arendt E.A. Patellofemoral pain, instability, and arthritis. Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York: Springer. 2010; 331 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-05424-2.

[88] Almeida G., Silva A., Magalhaes M. et al. Q-angle in patellofemoral pain: relationship with dynamic knee valgus, hip abductor torque, pain and function. Rev. Bras. Ortop. 2016; 51 (2): 181-186. DOI: 10.1016/j.rbo.2015.05.003.

[89] Almeida G., Silva A., Magalhaes M. et al. Q-angle in patellofemoral pain: relationship with dynamic knee valgus, hip abductor torque, pain and function. Rev. Bras. Ortop. 2016; 51 (2): 181–186. DOI: 10.1016/j.rbo.2015.05.003.

[90] Golant A., Quach T., Rosen J. Patellofemoral instability: diagnosis and management. 2013. https://www.intechopen.com/books/authors/current-issues-in-sports-and-exercise-medicine/patellofemoral-instability-diagnosis-and-management (access date: 12.08.2017).

[91] Golant A., Quach T., Rosen J. Patellofemoral instability: diagnosis and management. 2013. https://www.intechopen.com/books/authors/current-issues-in-sports-and-exercise-medicine/patellofemoral-instability-diagnosis-and-management (access date: 12.08.2017).

[92] Steensen R.N., Bentley J.C., Trinh T.Q. et al. The prevalence and combined prevalences of anatomic factors associated with recurrent patellar dislocation: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Am. J. Sports Med. 2015; 43: 921-927. DOI: 10.1177/0363546514563904.

[93] Steensen R.N., Bentley J.C., Trinh T.Q. et al. The prevalence and combined prevalences of anatomic factors associated with recurrent patellar dislocation: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Am. J. Sports Med. 2015; 43: 921–927. DOI: 10.1177/0363546514563904.

[94] Кадурина Т.И., Гнусаев С.Ф., Абакумова Л.Н. и др. Наследственные и многофакторные нарушения соединительной ткани у детей: алгоритмы диагностики, тактика ведения. Педиатрия. Ж. им. Г.Н. Сперанского. 2014; 93 (5-2): 1-40. DOI: 10.14300/mnnc.2016.11051.

[95] Kadurina T.I., Gnusaev S.F., Abbakumova L.N. et al. Hereditary and multifactorial disorders of connective tissue in children: diagnostic algorithms, management tactics. Pediatriya. Zhurnal im. G.N. Speranskogo. 2014; 93 (5-2): 1–40. (In Russ.)

[96] Кадурина Т.И., Гнусаев С.Ф., Абакумова Л.Н. и др. Наследственные и многофакторные нарушения соединительной ткани у детей: алгоритмы диагностики, тактика ведения. Мед. вестн. Северного Кавказа. 2015; 10 (1): 5-35. DOI: 10.14300/mnnc.2015.10001.

[97] Kadurina T.I., Gnusaev S.F., Abbakumova L.N. et al. Hereditary and multifactorial disorders of connective tissue in children: diagnostic algorithms, management tactics. Meditsinskiy vestnik Severnogo Kavkaza. 2015; 10 (1): 5–35. (In Russ.)

[98] Fransen M., Bridgett L., March L. et al. The epidemiology of osteoarthritis in Asia. Intern. J. Rheumat. Dis. 2011; 14 (2): 113-121. DOI: 10.1111/j.1756-185X.2011.01608.x.

[99] Fransen M., Bridgett L., March L. et al. The epidemiology of osteoarthritis in Asia. Intern. J. Rheumat. Dis. 2011; 14 (2): 113–121. DOI: 10.1111/j.1756-185X.2011.01608.x.

[100] Wright S.J., Boymans T.A., Grimm B. et. al. Strong correlation between the morphology of the proximal ferum and feometry of the distal femoral trochlea. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2014; 22: 2900-2910. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-014-3343-4.

[101] Wright S.J., Boymans T.A., Grimm B. et. al. Strong correlation between the morphology of the proximal ferum and feometry of the distal femoral trochlea. Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc. 2014; 22: 2900–2910. DOI: 10.1007/s00167-014-3343-4.

[102] Yamada Y., Toritsuka Y., Yoshikawa H. et al. Morphological analysis of the femoral trochlea in patients with recurrent dislocation of the patella using three-dimensional computer models. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 2007; 89 (6): 746-751. DOI: 10.1302/0301-620X.89B6.18514.

[103] Yamada Y., Toritsuka Y., Yoshikawa H. et al. Morphological analysis of the femoral trochlea in patients with recurrent dislocation of the patella using three-dimensional computer models. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 2007; 89 (6): 746–751. DOI: 10.1302/0301-620X.89B6.18514.

[104] Dejour D., Le Coultre B. Osteotomies in patellofemoral instabilities. Sport Med. Arthrosc. 2007; 15 (1): 39-46. DOI: 10.1097/JSA.0b013e31803035ae.

[105] Dejour D., Le Coultre B. Osteotomies in patellofemoral instabilities. Sport Med. Arthrosc. 2007; 15 (1): 39–46. DOI: 10.1097/JSA.0b013e31803035ae.

[106] Weber A.E., Nathani A., Dines J.S. An algorithmic approach to the management of recurrent lateral patellar dislocation. J. Bone Joint Surg. 2016; 98: 417-427. DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.O.00354.

[107] Weber A.E., Nathani A., Dines J.S. An algorithmic approach to the management of recurrent lateral patellar dislocation. J. Bone Joint Surg. 2016; 98: 417–427. DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.O.00354.

[108] Авдеев А.И., Кузнецов И.А., Шулепов Д.А. и др. Хроническая нестабильность надколенника: анатомические предпосылки и подходы к хирургическому лечению. Вестн. травматол. и ортопедии им. Н.Н. Приорова. 2017; (3): 73-80.

[109] Avdeev A.I., Kuznetsov I.A., Shulepov D.A. et al. Сhronic patellar instability: anatomic precondition and approaches to surgical treatment. Vestnik travmatologii i ortopedii imeni N.N. Priorova. 2017; (3): 73–80. (In Russ.)

[110] Lewallen L., Mclntosh A., Dahm D. First-time patellofemoral dislocation: risk factors for recurrent instability. J. Knee Surg. 2015; 28: 303-309. DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1398373.

[111] Lewallen L., Mclntosh A., Dahm D. First-time patellofemoral dislocation: risk factors for recurrent instability. J. Knee Surg. 2015; 28: 303–309. DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1398373.

[112] Nam D., Abdel M.P., Cross M.B. et al. The management of extensor mechanism complications in total knee arthroplasty. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 2014; 96: e47. DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.M.00949.

[113] Nam D., Abdel M.P., Cross M.B. et al. The management of extensor mechanism complications in total knee arthroplasty. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 2014; 96: e47. DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.M.00949.

[114] Luyckx T., Didden K., Vandenneucker H. et al. Is there a biomechanical explanation for anterior knee pain in patients with patella alta? Influence of patellar height on patellofemoral contact force, contact area and contact pressure. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 2009; 91 (3): 344-350. DOI: 10.1302/0301-620X.91B3.21592.

[115] Luyckx T., Didden K., Vandenneucker H. et al. Is there a biomechanical explanation for anterior knee pain in patients with patella alta? Influence of patellar height on patellofemoral contact force, contact area and contact pressure. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 2009; 91 (3): 344–350. DOI: 10.1302/0301-620X.91B3.21592.

[116] Tanaka M.J., Elias J.J., Williams A.A. et. al. Correlation between changes in tibial tuberosity-trochlear groove distance and patellar position during active knee extension on dynamic kinematic computed tomographic imaging. Arthoscopy. 2015; 31: 1748-1755. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2015.03.015.

[117] Tanaka M.J., Elias J.J., Williams A.A. et. al. Correlation between changes in tibial tuberosity-trochlear groove distance and patellar position during active knee extension on dynamic kinematic computed tomographic imaging. Arthoscopy. 2015; 31: 1748–1755. DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2015.03.015.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Said F.M., Akhtyamov I.F., Kudryavtsev A.I., Nuriakhmetov A.N.