Recent advances in solar cells and photo-electrochemical water splitting by scanning electrochemical microscopy

Abstract

Investigation on the mechanism and kinetics of charge transfer at semiconductor/electrolyte interface is significant for improving the photoelectric conversion efficiency and developing novel and high-efficiency photovoltaic devices. Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), as a powerful analytical technique, has a potential advantage of high spatial and temporal resolution. It has been expanded into a broad range of research fields since the first inception of SECM in 1989 by Bard groups, which includes biological, enzymes, corrosion, energy conversion and storage (such as solar cells, hydrogen and battery). Herein, we review the basic principles and the development of SECM, and chiefly introduce the recent advances of SECM investigation in photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells including solar cells and PEC water splitting. These advances include rapid screening of photocatalysts/photoelectrodes, interfacial reaction kinetics and quantitation of reaction intermediates, which is significant for evaluating the performance, choosing catalysts and developing novel composite photoanodes and high efficiency devices. Finally, we briefly describe the development trends of SECM in energy research.

Keywords

scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) / solar cells / photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting / screening / kinetics / intermediates

References

[1] Holdren J P. Energy and sustainability. Science, 2007, 315(5813): 737

[2] Lianos P. Review of recent trends in photoelectrocatalytic conversion of solar energy to electricity and hydrogen. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2017, 210: 235–254

[3] Li D, Shi J, Li C. Transition-metal-based electrocatalysts as cocatalysts for photoelectrochemical water splitting: a mini review. Small, 2018, 14(23): 1704179

[4] Fujishima A, Honda K. Electrochemical photolysis of water at a semiconductor electrode. Nature, 1972, 238(5358): 37–38

[5] Klotz D, Grave D A, Dotan H, Rothschild A. Empirical analysis of the photoelectrochemical impedance response of hematite photoanodes for water photo-oxidation. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2018, 9(6): 1466–1472

[6] Wang M, Chen P, Humphry-Baker R, Zakeeruddin S M, Grätzel M. The influence of charge transport and recombination on the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells. ChemPhysChem, 2009, 10(1): 290–299

[7] Klotz D, Ellis D S, Dotan H, Rothschild A. Empirical in operando analysis of the charge carrier dynamics in hematite photoanodes by PEIS, IMPS and IMVS. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2016, 18(34): 23438–23457

[8] Tsyganok A, Klotz D, Malviya K D, Rothschild A, Grave D A. Different roles of Fe_1−xNi_xOOH co-catalyst on hematite (a-Fe₂O₃) photoanodes with different dopants. ACS Catalysis, 2018, 8(4): 2754–2759

[9] Berera R, van Grondelle R, Kennis J T. Ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy: principles and application to photosynthetic systems. Photosynthesis Research, 2009, 101(2-3): 105–118

[10] Pei G X, Wijten J H J, Weckhuysen B M. Probing the dynamics of photogenerated holes in doped hematite photoanodes for solar water splitting using transient absorption spectroscopy. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2018, 20(15): 9806–9811

[11] Wang M, Alemu G, Shen Y. Scanning probe microscopy investigation of metal oxides nanocrystalline. In: Current Microscopy Contributions to Advances in Science and Technology, Chapter 3, 2012, 1377–1386

[12] Esposito D V, Baxter J B, John J, Lewis N S, Moffat T P, Ogitsu T, O’Neil G D, Pham T A, Talin A A, Velazquez J M, Wood B C. Methods of photoelectrode characterization with high spatial and temporal resolution. Energy & Environmental Science, 2015, 8(10): 2863–2885

[13] Cen J, Wu Q, Liu M, Orlov A. Developing new understanding of photoelectrochemical water splitting via in-situ techniques: a review on recent progress. Green Energy & Environment, 2017, 2(2): 100–111

[14] Miki T, Yanagi H. Scanning probe microscopic characterization of surface-modified n-TiO₂ single-crystal electrodes. Langmuir, 1998, 14(12): 3405–3410

[15] Wierzbiński E, Szklarczyk M. Photoelectrochemical and in situ atomic force microscopy studies of films derived from o-methoxyaniline solution on gallium arsenide (100) photoelectrode. Thin Solid Films, 2003, 424(2): 191–200

[16] Toma F M, Cooper J K, Kunzelmann V, McDowell M T, Yu J, Larson D M, Borys N J, Abelyan C, Beeman J W, Yu K M, Yang J, Chen L, Shaner M R, Spurgeon J, Houle F A, Persson K A, Sharp I D. Mechanistic insights into chemical and photochemical transformations of bismuth vanadate photoanodes. Nature Communications, 2016, 7: 12012

[17] Economou N J, Mubeen S, Buratto S K, McFarland E W. Investigation of arrays of photosynthetically active heterostructures using conductive probe atomic force microscopy. Nano Letters, 2014, 14(6): 3328–3334

[18] Nakamura R, Nakato Y. Primary intermediates of oxygen photoevolution reaction on TiO₂ (Rutile) particles, revealed by in situ FTIR absorption and photoluminescence measurements. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2004, 126(4): 1290–1298

[19] Zandi O, Hamann T W. Determination of photoelectrochemical water oxidation intermediates on haematite electrode surfaces using operando infrared spectroscopy. Nature Chemistry, 2016, 8(8): 778–783

[20] McKelvey K, Nadappuram B P, Actis P, Takahashi Y, Korchev Y E, Matsue T, Robinson C, Unwin P R. Fabrication, characterization, and functionalization of dual carbon electrodes as probes for scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). Analytical Chemistry, 2013, 85(15): 7519–7526

[21] Zampardi G, Klink S, Kuznetsov V, Erichsen T, Maljusch A, La Mantia F, Schuhmann W, Ventosa E. Combined AFM/SECM investigation of the solid electrolyte interphase in Li-ion batteries. Chemelectrochem, 2015, 2(10): 1607–1611

[22] Takahashi Y, Shevchuk A I, Novak P, Murakami Y, Shiku H, Korchev Y E, Matsue T. Simultaneous noncontact topography and electrochemical imaging by SECM/SICM featuring ion current feedback regulation. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2010, 132(29): 10118–10126

[23] Baranski A, Diakowski P. Application of AC impedance techniques to scanning electrochemical microscopy. Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry, 2004, 8(10): 683–692

[24] Mirkin M, Fan F, Bard A. Scanning electrochemical microscopy part 13. Evaluation of the tip shapes of nanometer size microelectrodes. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, 1992, 328(1-2): 47–62

[25] Bard A, Fan F, Kwak J, Lev O. Scanning electrochemical microscopy: introduction and principles. Analytical Chemistry, 1989, 61(3): 132–138

[26] Engstrom R, Pharr C. Scanning electrochemical microscopy. Analytical Chemistry, 1989, 61(19): 1099A–1104A

[27] Polcari D, Dauphin-Ducharme P, Mauzeroll J. Scanning electrochemical microscopy: a comprehensive review of experimental parameters from 1989 to 2015. Chemical Reviews, 2016, 116(22): 13234–13278

[28] Rodriguez-López J, Alpuche-Aviles M A, Bard A J. Selective insulation with poly(tetrafluoroethylene) of substrate electrodes for electrochemical background reduction in scanning electrochemical microscopy. Analytical Chemistry, 2008, 80(5): 1813–1818

[29] Rodríguez-López J.Surface interrogation mode of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SI-SECM): an approach to the study of adsorption and (electro)catalysis at electrodes. Electroanalytical Chemistry: A Series of Advances, 2012, 24: 287–341

[30] Zhang B, Xu X, Zhang X, Huang D, Li S, Zhang Y, Zhan F, Deng M, He Y, Chen W, Shen Y, Wang M. Investigation of dye regeneration kinetics in sensitized solar cells by scanning electrochemical microscopy. ChemPhysChem, 2014, 15(6): 1182–1189

[31] Weng Y, Hsiao K. Composition optimization of ZnO-based photocatalyst arrays by scanning electrochemical microscopy and the characterization of efficient photocatalysts. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2015, 40(8): 3238–3248

[32] Li F, Ciani I, Bertoncello P, Unwin P R, Zhao J J, Bradbury C R, Fermin D J. Scanning electrochemical microscopy of redox-mediated hydrogen evolution catalyzed by two-dimensional assemblies of palladium nanoparticles. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2008, 112(26): 9686–9694

[33] Zhang B, Yuan H, Zhang X, Huang D, Li S, Wang M, Shen Y. Investigation of regeneration kinetics in quantum-dots-sensitized solar cells with scanning electrochemical microscopy. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2014, 6(23): 20913–20918

[34] Alemu G, Zhang B, Li J, Xu X, Cui J, Shen Y, Wang M. Investigation of dye-regeneration kinetics at dye-sensitized p-type CuCrO₂ film/electrolytes interface with scanning electrochemical microscopy. Nano, 2014, 9(5): 1440008

[35] Martin C, Bozic-Weber B, Constable E, Glatzel T, Housecroft C, Wright I. Development of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) techniques for the optimization of dye sensitized solar cells. Electrochimica Acta, 2014, 119: 86–91

[36] Schmidt I, Plettenberg I, Kimmich D, Ellis H, Witt J, Dosche C, Wittstock G. Spatially resolved analysis of screen printed photoanodes of dye-sensitized solar cells by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Electrochimica Acta, 2016, 222: 735–746

[37] Shen Y, Träuble M, Wittstock G. Detection of hydrogen peroxide produced during electrochemical oxygen reduction using scanning electrochemical microscopy. Analytical Chemistry, 2008, 80(3): 750–759

[38] Li H, Du M, Mleczko M J, Koh A L, Nishi Y, Pop E, Bard A J, Zheng X. Kinetic study of hydrogen evolution reaction over strained MoS₂ with sulfur vacancies using scanning electrochemical microscopy. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2016, 138(15): 5123–5129

[39] Jung C, Sánchez-Sánchez C M, Lin C L, Rodríguez-López J, Bard A J. Electrocatalytic activity of Pd-Co bimetallic mixtures for formic acid oxidation studied by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Analytical Chemistry, 2009, 81(16): 7003–7008

[40] Sánchez-Sánchez C M, Rodríguez-López J, Bard A J. Scanning electrochemical microscopy. 60. Quantitative calibration of the SECM substrate generation/tip collection mode and its use for the study of the oxygen reduction mechanism. Analytical Chemistry, 2008, 80(9): 3254–3260

[41] Ventosa E, Schuhmann W. Scanning electrochemical microscopy of Li-ion batteries. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2015, 17(43): 28441–28450

[42] Xu F, Beak B, Jung C. In situ electrochemical studies for Li+ ions dissociation from the LiCoO₂ electrode by the substrate-generation/tip-collection mode in SECM. Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry, 2012, 16(1): 305–311

[43] Bülter H, Peters F, Schwenzel J, Wittstock G. Spatiotemporal changes of the solid electrolyte interphase in lithium-ion batteries detected by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Angewandte Chemie, 2014, 53(39): 10531–10535

[44] Sumboja A, Tefashe U, Wittstock G, Lee P S. Investigation of charge transfer kinetics of polyaniline supercapacitor electrodes by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2015, 2(1): 1400154

[45] Zhang Q, Ye Z, Zhu Z, Liu X, Zhang J, Cao F. Separation and kinetic study of iron corrosion in acidic solution via a modified tip generation/substrate collection mode by SECM. Corrosion Science, 2018, 139: 403–409

[46] Lee J, Ye H, Pan S, Bard A J. Screening of photocatalysts by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Analytical Chemistry, 2008, 80(19): 7445–7450

[47] Sreekanth N, Phani K L. Selective reduction of CO₂ to formate through bicarbonate reduction on metal electrodes: new insights gained from SG/TC mode of SECM. Chemical Communications (Cambridge, England), 2014, 50(76): 11143–11146

[48] Rodríguez-López J, Bard A J. Scanning electrochemical microscopy: surface interrogation of adsorbed hydrogen and the open circuit catalytic decomposition of formic acid at platinum. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2010, 132(14): 5121–5129

[49] Fernández J L, White J M, Sun Y, Tang W, Henkelman G, Bard A J. Characterization and theory of electrocatalysts based on scanning electrochemical microscopy screening methods. Langmuir, 2006, 22(25): 10426–10431

[50] Jantz D, Leonard K. Characterizing electrocatalysts with scanning electrochemical microscopy. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2018, 57(22): 7431–7440

[51] Li Y, Ning X, Ma Q, Qin D, Lu X. Recent advances in electrochemistry by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2016, 80: 242–254

[52] Rincón M E, Trujillo M E, Ávalos J, Casillas N. Photoelectrochemical processes at interfaces of nanostructured TiO₂/carbon black composites studied by scanning photoelectrochemical microscopy. Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry, 2007, 11(9): 1287–1294

[53] Bozic B, Figgemeier E. Scanning electrochemical microscopy under illumination: an elegant tool to directly determine the mobility of charge carriers within dye-sensitized nanostructured semiconductors. Chemical Communications (Cambridge, England), 2006, 21(21): 2268–2270

[54] Tefashe U M, Loewenstein T, Miura H, Schlettwein D, Wittstock G. Scanning electrochemical microscope studies of dye regeneration in indoline (D149)-sensitized ZnO photoelectrochemical cells. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, 2010, 650(1): 24–30

[55] Tefashe U M, Rudolph M, Miura H, Schlettwein D, Wittstock G. Photovoltaic characteristics and dye regeneration kinetics in D149-sensitized ZnO with varied dye loading and film thickness. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2012, 14(20): 7533–7542

[56] Tefashe U M, Nonomura K, Vlachopoulos N, Hagfeldt A, Wittstock G. Effect of cationon dye regeneration kinetics of N719-sensitized TiO₂ films in acetonitrile-based and ionic-liquid-based electrolytes investigated by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2012, 116(6): 4316–4323

[57] Shen Y, Nonomura K, Schlettwein D, Zhao C, Wittstock G. Photoelectrochemical kinetics of eosin y-sensitized zinc oxide films investigated by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany), 2006, 12(22): 5832–5839

[58] Shen Y, Tefashe U M, Nonomura K, Loewenstein T, Schlettwein D, Wittstock G. Photoelectrochemical kinetics of Eosin Y-sensitized zinc oxide films investigated by scanning electrochemical microscopy under illumination with different LED. Electrochimica Acta, 2009, 55(2): 458–464

[59] Xu X, Zhang B, Cui J, Xiong D, Shen Y, Chen W, Sun L, Cheng Y, Wang M. Efficient p-type dye-sensitized solar cells based on disulfide/thiolate electrolytes. Nanoscale, 2013, 5(17): 7963–7969

[60] Kojima A, Teshima K, Shirai Y, Miyasaka T. Organometal halide perovskites as visible-light sensitizers for photovoltaic cells. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2009, 131(17): 6050–6051

[61] Hsu H, Ji L, Du M, Zhao J, Yu E, Bard A. Optimization of PbI₂/MAPbI₃ perovskite composites by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2016, 120(35): 19890–19895

[62] Alemu G, Li J, Cui J, Xu X, Zhang B, Cao K, Shen Y, Cheng Y, Wang M. Investigation on regeneration kinetics at perovskite/oxide interface with scanning electrochemical microscopy. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2015, 3(17): 9216–9222

[63] Jang J, Lee J, Ye H, Fan F, Bard A. Rapid screening of effective dopants for Fe₂O₃ photocatalysts with scanning electrochemical microscopy and investigation of their photoelectrochemical properties. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2009, 113(16): 6719–6724

[64] Currao A. Photoelectrochemical water splitting. Chimia, 2007, 61(12): 815–819

[65] Acar C, Dincer I, Zamfirescu C. A review on selected heterogeneous photocatalysts for hydrogen production. International Journal of Energy Research, 2014, 38(15): 1903–1920

[66] Acar C, Dincer I. A review and evaluation of photoelectrode coating materials and methods for photoelectrochemical hydrogen production. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2016, 41(19): 7950–7959

[67] Shi Q, Murcia-López S, Tang P, Flox C, Morante J, Bian Z, Wang H, Andreu T. Role of tungsten doping on the surface states in BiVO₄ photoanodes for water oxidation: tuning the electron trapping process. ACS Catalysis, 2018, 8(4): 3331–3342

[68] Yang Y, Niu S, Han D, Liu T, Wang G, Li Y. Progress in developing metal oxide nanomaterials for photoelectrochemical water splitting. Advanced Energy Materials, 2017, 7(19): 1700555

[69] Zhang X, Zhang B, Zuo Z, Wang M, Shen Y. N/Si co-doped oriented single crystalline rutile TiO₂ nanorods for photoelectrochemical water splitting. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2015, 3(18): 10020–10025

[70] Zhang X, Yang H, Zhang B, Shen Y, Wang M. BiOI-TiO₂ nanocomposites for photoelectrochemical water splitting. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2016, 3(1): 1500273

[71] Harrison S, Hayne M. Photoelectrolysis using type-II semiconductor heterojunctions. Scientific Reports, 2017, 7(1): 11638

[72] Wang H, Zhang L, Chen Z, Hu J, Li S, Wang Z, Liu J, Wang X. Semiconductor heterojunction photocatalysts: design, construction, and photocatalytic performances. Chemical Society Reviews, 2014, 43(15): 5234–5244

[73] Yang J, Wang D, Han H, Li C. Roles of cocatalysts in photocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis. Accounts of Chemical Research, 2013, 46(8): 1900–1909

[74] Zhang X, Zhang B, Liu S, Kang H, Kong W, Zhang S, Shen Y, Yang B. RGO modified Ni doped FeOOH for enhanced electrochemical and photoelectrochemical water oxidation. Applied Surface Science, 2018, 436: 974–980

[75] Zhang X, Zhang B, Luo Y, Lv X, Shen Y. Phosphate modified N/Si co-doped rutile TiO₂ nanorods for photoelectrochemical water oxidation. Applied Surface Science, 2017, 391: 288–294

[76] Zhang X, Zhang B, Huang D, Yuan H, Wang M, Shen Y. TiO₂ nanotubes modified with electrochemically reduced graphene oxide for photoelectrochemical water splitting. Carbon, 2014, 80: 591–598

[77] Shi W, Zhang X, Brillet J, Huang D, Li M, Wang M, Shen Y. Significant enhancement of the photoelectrochemical activity of WO₃ nanoflakes by carbon quantum dots decoration. Carbon, 2016, 105: 387–393

[78] Shi W, Zhang X, Li S, Zhang B, Wang M, Shen Y. Carbon coated Cu₂O nanowires for photoelectrochemical water splitting with enhanced activity. Applied Surface Science, 2015, 358: 404–411

[79] Zhang X, Zhang B, Cao K, Brillet J, Chen J, Wang M, Shen Y. A perovskite solar cell-TiO₂@BiVO₄ photoelectrochemical system for direct solar water splitting. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 2015, 3(43): 21630–21636

[80] Chen Y S, Manser J S, Kamat P V. All solution-processed lead halide perovskite-BiVO₄ tandem assembly for photolytic solar fuels production. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2015, 137(2): 974–981

[81] Brillet J, Yum J, Cornuz M, Hisatomi T, Solarska R, Augustynski J, Grätzel M, Sivula K. Highly efficient water splitting by a dual-absorber tandem cell. Nature Photonics, 2012, 6(12): 824–828

[82] Park H, Kweon K, Ye H, Paek E, Hwang G, Bard A. Factors in the metal doping of BiVO₄ for improved photoelectrocatalytic activity as studied by scanning electrochemical microscopy and first-principles density-functional calculation. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2011, 115(36): 17870–17879

[83] Leonard K, Nam K, Lee H, Kang S, Park H, Bard A. ZnWO₄/WO₃ composite for improving photoelectrochemical water oxidation. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2013, 117(31): 15901–15910

[84] Ye H, Park H, Bard A. Screening of electrocatalysts for photoelectrochemical water oxidation on W-doped BiVO₄ photocatalysts by scanning electrochemic al microscopy. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2011, 115(25): 12464–12470

[85] Ye H, Lee J, Jang J, Bard A. Rapid screening of BiVO₄-based photocatalysts by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and studies of their photoelectrochemical properties. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2010, 114(31): 13322–13328

[86] Lu X, Hu Y, He H. Electron transfer kinetics at interfaces using secm (scanning electrochemical microscopy). In: Sur U K, ed. Recent Trend in Electrochemical Science and Technology. Rijeka: In Tech, 2012, 127–156

[87] Ahn H S, Bard A J. Surface interrogation scanning electrochemical microscopy of Ni_1−xFe_xOOH (0<x< 0.27) oxygen evolving catalyst: kinetics of the “fast” iron sites. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2016, 138(1): 313–318

[88] Zhang B, Zhang X, Xiao X, Shen Y. Photoelectrochemical water splitting system--a study of interfacial charge transfer with scanning electrochemical microscopy. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2016, 8(3): 1606–1614

[89] Rastgar S, Wittstock G. Characterization of photoactivity of nanostructured BiVO₄ at polarized liquid-liquid interfaces by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2017, 121(46): 25941–25948

[90] Ahn H S, Bard A J. Surface interrogation of CoP_i water oxidation catalyst by scanning electrochemical microscopy. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2015, 137(2): 612–615

[91] Zigah D, Rodríguez-López J, Bard A J. Quantification of photoelectrogenerated hydroxyl radical on TiO₂ by surface interrogation scanning electrochemical microscopy. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2012, 14(37): 12764–12772

[92] Park H, Leonard K, Bard A. Surface interrogation scanning electrochemical microscopy (SI-SECM) of photoelectrochemistry at a W/Mo-BiVO₄ semiconductor electrode: quantification of hydroxyl radicals during water oxidation. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2013, 117(23): 12093–12102

[93] Cho S, Park H, Lee H, Nam K, Bard A. Metal doping of BiVO₄ by composite electrodeposition with improved photoelectrochemical water oxidation. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2013, 117(44): 23048–23056

[94] Krumov M R, Simpson B H, Counihan M J, Rodríguez-López J.In situ quantification of surface intermediates and correlation to discharge products on hematite photoanodes using a combined scanning electrochemical microscopy approach. Analytical Chemistry, 2018, 90(5): 3050–3057

[95] Kim J Y, Ahn H S, Bard A J. Surface interrogation scanning electrochemical microscopy for a photoelectrochemical reaction: water oxidation on a hematite surface. Analytical Chemistry, 2018, 90(5): 3045–3049

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51602120), Natural Science Foundation of Education Department of Henan Province (No. 17A430023), and the opening project of Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Nanocomposites and Applications (No. hkd20170106).

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2018 Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature