Advanced wearable biosensing and wireless integration technologies for next-generation healthcare monitoring

Abstract

Wearable sensors play a crucial role in biomedical applications, enabling real-time and long-term monitoring of physiological and metabolic signals that are essential for disease prevention and personalized healthcare. With excellent stretchability, biocompatibility, and self-healing capability, these novel devices continuously track human biophysical signals such as motion, respiration, and blood pressure, as well as chemical biomarkers including electrolytes, glucose, and lactate in body fluids. Recent advances in material design, sensing mechanisms, and integration technologies have greatly fueled the enhanced capabilities of wearable monitoring systems and their implementation in next-generation healthcare platforms. This review summarizes the key material properties required for reliable long-term monitoring, the main detectable physiological biomarkers, and the latest progress and challenges in sensor integration and communication.

Keywords

Wearable sensors / intelligent healthcare / wireless biosensing technologies

References

[1] Yang X,Fan Q.Electronic skin for health monitoring systems: properties, functions, and applications.Adv Mater2024;36:e2402542

[2] Liang X,Meng S,Zhang K.A non-enzymatic flexible and wearable sensor based on thermal transfer printing technology for continuous glucose detection in sweat.Microchem J2024;207:111690

[3] Zulkifli NA,Kim M.3D-printed magnetic-based air pressure sensor for continuous respiration monitoring and breathing rehabilitation.Soft Sci2024;4:20

[4] Ali M,Das R,Basdogan I.A flexible and biodegradable piezoelectric-based wearable sensor for non-invasive monitoring of dynamic human motions and physiological signals.Adv Mater Technol2023;8:2300347

[5] Yang Y,Xia X.MXenes for wearable physical sensors toward smart healthcare.ACS Nano2024;18:24705-40

[6] Zhou Y,Qiu S.Microscopic response mechanism of epsilon-negative and epsilon-near-zero metacomposites.Research2025;8:0556 PMCID:PMC11694408

[7] Ma Z,Wang H.Advanced electronic skin devices for healthcare applications.J Mater Chem B2019;7:173-97

[8] Jung Y,Jeong S,Ko SH.Strain-insensitive outdoor wearable electronics by thermally robust nanofibrous radiative cooler.ACS Nano2024;18:2312-24

[9] Lu Y,Zhang H,Xiong Z.Soft wearable electronics for evaluation of biological tissue mechanics.Soft Sci2024;4:36

[10] Yeo WH,Lee J.Multi-functional electronics: multifunctional epidermal electronics printed directly onto the skin (Adv. Mater. 20/2013).Adv Mater2013;25:2772

[11] Li X,Li HY.Ultracomfortable hierarchical nanonetwork for highly sensitive pressure sensor.ACS Nano2020;14:9605-12

[12] Sabry F,Labda W,Malluhi Q.Machine learning for healthcare wearable devices: the big picture.J Healthc Eng2022;2022:4653923 PMCID:PMC9038375

[13] Ghadi YY,Waheed W.Integration of wearable technology and artificial intelligence in digital health for remote patient care.J Cloud Comp2025;14:39

[14] Pan Y,Sun Y,Zhou Y.Flexible and printed electronics manufacturing in China.Flex Print Electron2025;10:043001

[15] Yuan J,Zhou Y.Flexible sensor-driven smart vehicles: opportunities and prospects.CHAIN2025;2:227-35

[16] Kang S,Shanker R.Transparent and conductive nanomembranes with orthogonal silver nanowire arrays for skin-attachable loudspeakers and microphones.Sci Adv2018;4:eaas8772 PMCID:PMC6070362

[17] Wang Y,Wang J.Wearable plasmonic-metasurface sensor for noninvasive and universal molecular fingerprint detection on biointerfaces.Sci Adv2021;7:eabe4553 PMCID:PMC10964967

[18] Min S,Joe DJ.Clinical validation of a wearable piezoelectric blood-pressure sensor for continuous health monitoring.Adv Mater2023;35:e2301627

[19] Yang M,Li Z.Recent progress in flexible materials for wearable devices for body function and athletic performance monitoring.Chem Eng J2025;505:159659

[20] Tan C,Li Y.A high performance wearable strain sensor with advanced thermal management for motion monitoring.Nat Commun2020;11:3530 PMCID:PMC7363829

[21] Babu RS,Raja R.Nanohybrid materials in flexible and wearable supercapacitors. In Hybrid nanostructures for advanced supercapacitors; Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, Vol 63; Springer, Cham, 2026; pp. 215-49.

[22] Yu S,Wu X.Fully printed organic thin-film transistors: pathways to scalable, high-performance flexible electronics.Chem Soc Rev2026;55:567-604

[23] Gao W,He J.Recent advances in ultrathin materials and their applications in e-skin.InfoMat2023;5:e12426

[24] Zhao W,Dinh Trung V.AgNPs/CNTs modified nonwoven fabric for PET-based flexible interdigitated electrodes in pressure sensor applications.Chem Eng J2024;499:156252

[25] Liu X,Dai X,Li B.Flexible pressure sensor based on Pt/PI network with high sensitivity and high thermal resistance.Chem Eng J2024;494:152996

[26] Zhang T,Wang S.Recent study advances in flexible sensors based on polyimides.Sensors2023;23:9743 PMCID:PMC10747040

[27] Li S,Li S,Qiu T.Synthesis of a breathable and degradable silk fibroin/sodium alginate/aniline tetramer electronic skin by in situ polymerization method and for human motion monitoring.Compos Commun2025;56:102419

[28] Liang A,Yao M.Bioinspired dual-mode self-powered paper sensor for sustainable wearable health monitoring via synergistic humidity gradient and triboelectric effects.Langmuir2025;41:27512-24

[29] Huang P,Jia Q,Yue T.High-performance piezoresistive sensor based on indium tin oxide nanoparticles/cellulose nanofiber composite for human activity monitoring.Compos Commun2025;59:102544

[30] Chen G,Liu Z.Plasticizing silk protein for on-skin stretchable electrodes.Adv Mater2018;30:e1800129

[31] Zhang Y,Gao Y.Bioinspired durable mechanical-bioelectrical dual-modal sensors enabled by mixed ion-electron conduction and mechanical interlocking for multifunctional sensing.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2501122

[32] Guan S,Dong X.A highly tough, fatigue-resistant, low hysteresis hybrid hydrogel with a hierarchical cross-linked structure for wearable strain sensors.J Mater Chem A2023;11:15404-15

[33] He J,Zhang Y.Strain-insensitive self-powered tactile sensor arrays based on intrinsically stretchable and patternable ultrathin conformal wrinkled graphene-elastomer composite.Adv Funct Mater2022;32:2107281

[34] Wang J,Wu N.Intrinsically stretchable organic photovoltaics by redistributing strain to PEDOT:PSS with enhanced stretchability and interfacial adhesion.Nat Commun2024;15:4902 PMCID:PMC11162488

[35] Ma Z.Recent advances in laser-induced-graphene-based soft skin electronics for intelligent healthcare.Soft Sci2024;4:26

[36] Li S,Lyu H.An artificial spiking afferent nerve based on synaptic transistor for thermal perception.IEEE Electron Dev Lett2024;45:64-7

[37] Han SH,Yang HJ,Park JY.Optical visualization of stretchable serpentine interconnects using chiral liquid crystal elastomers.Adv Sci2024;12:e2408346

[38] Shi Y,Zhang B.Freestanding serpentine silicon strips with ultrahigh stretchability over 300% for wearable electronics.Adv Mater2024;36:e2313603

[39] Zhang M,Guo Y,Zhang Y.Liquid-crystal-elastomer-actuated reconfigurable microscale kirigami metastructures.Adv Mater2021;33:e2008605 PMCID:PMC7612660

[40] Hao XP,Li CY,Zheng Q.Kirigami-design-enabled hydrogel multimorphs with application as a multistate switch.Adv Mater2020;32:e2000781

[41] Lee S,Ko Y.A metal-like conductive elastomer with a hierarchical wrinkled structure.Adv Mater2020;32:e1906460

[42] Zhao Y,Dai K.Bioinspired multifunctional photonic-electronic smart skin for ultrasensitive health monitoring, for visual and self-powered sensing.Adv Mater2021;33:e2102332

[43] Yan Z,Xiong J.Hierarchical serpentine-helix combination for 3D stretchable electronics.Adv Mater2023;35:e2210238

[44] Liu H,Wang Z.Robust and multifunctional Kirigami electronics with a tough and permeable aramid nanofiber framework.Adv Mater2022;34:e2207350

[45] Nisa FU,Khalid S.Supramolecular cross-linking enables highly stretchable and ultrasensitive polyurethane-poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) tactile sensors.ACS Nano2025;19:35102-18

[46] Wang S,Lu X.High-performance solid-state ion-conductive elastomer based on multiple noncovalent interactions for flexible sensors.Chem Eng J2025;505:159776

[47] He S,Gao J,Rahaman A.Integration of different graphene nanostructures with PDMS to form wearable sensors.Nanomaterials2022;12:950 PMCID:PMC8949288

[48] Yu Y,Blanloeuil P,Wang CH.Wearable temperature sensors with enhanced sensitivity by engineering microcrack morphology in PEDOT:PSS-PDMS sensors.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2020;12:36578-88

[49] Zhong L,Wang JY.Calibration-free optical waveguide bending sensor for soft robots.Soft Sci2025;5:3

[50] Masihi S,Maddipatla D.Highly sensitive porous PDMS-based capacitive pressure sensors fabricated on fabric platform for wearable applications.ACS Sens2021;6:938-49

[51] Li S,Pan C.A multi-functional wearable sensor based on carbon nanomaterials reinforced TPU fiber with high sensitivity.J Alloys Compd2022;927:167041

[52] Rana SMS,Reza MS,Kim H.All porous Ecoflex and SEBS-based stretchable high-performance triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered human activity monitoring.Chem Eng J2024;488:151050

[53] Shrestha K,Asaduzzaman M.A breathable, reliable, and flexible siloxene incorporated porous SEBS-based triboelectric nanogenerator for human–machine interactions.Adv Energy Mater2024;14:2302471

[54] Kim SH,Kim M.Designing a length-modulated azide photocrosslinker to improve the stretchability of semiconducting polymers.Adv Funct Mater2023;33:2212127

[55] Xia H,Miao C.Ultra-thin amphiphilic hydrogel electrolyte for flexible zinc-ion paper batteries.Energy Environ Sci2024;17:6507-20

[56] Qiu Y,Tang WJ.An ultra-thin transparent multi-functional sensor based on silk hydrogel for health monitoring.J Micromech Microeng2022;32:084003

[57] Roy A,Jain S.Advances in conducting nanocomposite hydrogels for wearable biomonitoring.Chem Soc Rev2025;54:2595-652

[58] Pan B,Jin M.Ultrathin hierarchical hydrogel-carbon nanocomposite for highly stretchable fast-response water-proof wearable humidity sensors.Mater Horiz2023;10:5263-76

[59] Wu K,Li Y.3D printed silk fibroin-based hydrogels with tunable adhesion and stretchability for wearable sensing.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2404451

[60] Tropp J,Xie X.Conducting polymer nanoparticles with intrinsic aqueous dispersibility for conductive hydrogels.Adv Mater2024;36:e2306691 PMCID:PMC11294187

[61] He J,Wang W.Multifunctional wearable device based on an antibacterial and hydrophobic silver nanoparticles/Ti₃C₂T_x MXene/thermoplastic polyurethane fibrous membrane for electromagnetic shielding and strain sensing.Ind Eng Chem Res2023;62:9221-32

[62] Chen S,Zheng Y.Highly sensitive and robust soft tri-axial tactile sensors enabled by dual inductive sensing mechanisms.Soft Sci2025;5:6

[63] Kim S,Song YS.Omni-directional assembly of 2D single-crystalline metal nanosheets.Adv Mater2025;37:e2501632 PMCID:PMC12177855

[64] Singh M,Pannu AS.Defect-free, few-atomic-layer thin ZnO nanosheets with superior excitonic properties for optoelectronic devices.ACS Nano2024;18:16947-57

[65] Gogurla N,Cho S,Kim S.Multifunctional and ultrathin electronic tattoo for on-skin diagnostic and therapeutic applications.Adv Mater2021;33:e2008308

[66] Alam MN,Lee DJ.Synergistically toughened silicone rubber nanocomposites using carbon nanotubes and molybdenum disulfide for stretchable strain sensors.Compos Part B Eng2023;259:110759

[67] Jo HS,Kim TG.Wearable transparent thermal sensors and heaters based on metal-plated fibers and nanowires.Nanoscale2018;10:19825-34

[68] Lim T,Won S.Liquid metal-based electronic textiles coated with au nanoparticles as stretchable electrode materials for healthcare monitoring.ACS Appl Nano Mater2023;6:8482-94

[69] Jiang D,Sun Z.A silver nanowires@Prussian blue composite aerogel-based wearable sensor for noninvasive and dynamic monitoring of sweat uric acid.Chem Eng J2024;486:150220

[70] Lin M,Yang L.A high-performance, sensitive, wearable multifunctional sensor based on rubber/CNT for human motion and skin temperature detection.Adv Mater2022;34:e2107309

[71] Gao Z,Carlo AD.Advances in wearable strain sensors based on electrospun fibers.Adv Funct Mater2023;33:2214265

[72] Cao Y,Huang Z.A unique and robust physically unclonable function based on bionic tunable ion gel-gated synaptic transistors.IEEE Electron Device Lett2023;44:1995-8

[73] Fan W,Wu F.An antisweat interference and highly sensitive temperature sensor based on poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) fiber coated with polyurethane/graphene for real-time monitoring of body temperature.ACS Nano2023;17:21073-82 PMCID:PMC10655239

[74] Zheng X,Ding B.Ultrathin elastomer nanofiber-based skin-like electronic with multi-mode sensing capabilities.Small Methods2025;9:e01064

[75] Zhao Y,Liu J.Underwater self-healing and recyclable ionogel sensor for physiological signal monitoring.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2023;15:28664-74

[76] Zhu M,Chen L.Ultrathin self-healing nanofibrous membrane with a hierarchical confined structure for biomimetic epidermal electrodes.ACS Nano2024;18:28834-48

[77] Li S,Zhou Y.Artificial reflex arc: an environment-adaptive neuromorphic camouflage device.IEEE Electron Device Lett2021;42:1224-7

[78] Zhang D,Zhang Y.Highly stretchable, self-adhesive, biocompatible, conductive hydrogels as fully polymeric strain sensors.J Mater Chem A2020;8:20474-85

[79] Shi C,Lei Z,Zhang W.Heterogeneous integration of rigid, soft, and liquid materials for self-healable, recyclable, and reconfigurable wearable electronics.Sci Adv2020;6:eabd0202 PMCID:PMC7673720

[80] Guo X,Patel S.A skin-mimicking multifunctional hydrogel via hierarchical, reversible noncovalent interactions.Sci Adv2025;11:eadv8523 PMCID:PMC12083530

[81] Li Y,Zhang J.Ultrasensitive and ultrastretchable electrically self-healing conductors.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2023;120:e2300953120 PMCID:PMC10266060

[82] He X,Wang J.Liquid metal/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) composite hydrogels with multi-stage gauge factors, pressure resistance, and wide pH stability.ACS Appl Polym Mater2025;7:11713-22

[83] Li SY,Zan GT.Liquid metal-enabled energy generators for self-powered soft bioelectronics.Rare Met2025;44:9297-335

[84] Wei J,Pan F.Reusable liquid metal-based hierarchical hydrogels with multifunctional sensing capability for electrophysiology electrode substitution.ACS Nano2025;19:15554-64

[85] Wang S,Liu W.Research progress of flexible electronic devices based on electrospun nanofibers.ACS Nano2024;18:31737-72

[86] Li X,Li Y.Healable, degradable, and conductive MXene nanocomposite hydrogel for multifunctional epidermal sensors.ACS Nano2021;15:7765-73

[87] Chen Y,Liu M.Shape-adaptive, self-healable triboelectric nanogenerator with enhanced performances by soft solid-solid contact electrification.ACS Nano2019;13:8936-45

[88] An S,Jang J.Self-bondable and strain-durable electroceuticals using self-healing and stretchable conducting nanocomposite trilayer for effective vagus nerve stimulation.ACS Nano2025;19:33091-102

[89] Zeng X,Wang X.Efficient multi-phsysical crosslinked nanocomposite hydrogel for a conformal strain and self-powered tactile sensor.Nano Energy2025;135:110669

[90] Kim KH,Ko YJ.Body-attachable multifunctional electronic skins for bio-signal monitoring and therapeutic applications.Soft Sci2024;4:24

[91] Li S,Li J.Multiterminal ionic synaptic transistor with artificial blink reflex function.IEEE Electron Device Lett2021;42:351-4

[92] Du Y,Kong H.Biocompatible electronic skins for cardiovascular health monitoring.Adv Healthc Mater2024;13:e2303461

[93] Jiang Y,Wang YX.Topological supramolecular network enabled high-conductivity, stretchable organic bioelectronics.Science2022;375:1411-7

[94] Zhang Z,Guo K,Wang X.Durable and highly sensitive flexible sensors for wearable electronic devices with PDMS-MXene/TPU composite films.Ceram Int2022;48:4977-85

[95] Amjadi M,Park I.Ultra-stretchable and skin-mountable strain sensors using carbon nanotubes-Ecoflex nanocomposites.Nanotechnology2015;26:375501

[96] Jamatia T,Olejnik R.Wearable and stretchable SEBS/CB polymer conductive strand as a piezoresistive strain sensor.Polymers2023;15:1618 PMCID:PMC10096618

[97] Zhang Q,Liang J.Ti₃C₂T_x-MXene/PET textile-based flexible pressure sensor for wearable pulse monitoring.J Mater Chem C2023;11:15638-48

[98] Gao FL,Gao XZ.Integrated temperature and pressure dual-mode sensors based on elastic PDMS foams decorated with thermoelectric PEDOT:PSS and carbon nanotubes for human energy harvesting and electronic-skin.J Mater Chem A2022;10:18256-66

[99] Dang X,Wang X.A temperature and pressure dual-responsive, stretchable, healable, adhesive, and biocompatible carboxymethyl cellulose-based conductive hydrogels for flexible wearable strain sensor.Biosens Bioelectron2024;246:115893

[100] Chen X,Guo CF.Flexible iontronic sensing: ionic materials, electrodes, and encapsulation.Adv Funct Mater2026;36:e12920

[101] Wang X,Liu Y.Design of protective and high sensitivity encapsulation layers in wearable devices.Sci China Technol Sci2023;66:223-32 PMCID:PMC9798368

[102] Gai Y,Liu M.A self-powered wearable sensor for continuous wireless sweat monitoring.Small Methods2022;6:e2200653

[103] Chung HU,Hourlier-Fargette A.Skin-interfaced biosensors for advanced wireless physiological monitoring in neonatal and pediatric intensive-care units.Nat Med2020;26:418-29 PMCID:PMC7315772

[104] Brasier N,Salvatore GA.The sweat rate as a digital biomarker in clinical medicine beyond sports science.Soft Sci2024;4:6

[105] Li W,Guo J.Integrated fibrous iontronic pressure sensors with high sensitivity and reliability for human plantar pressure and gait analysis.ACS Nano2024;18:14672-84

[106] Chen S,Lu B.A wearable device for continuous immunoassay-based monitoring of C-peptide in interstitial fluid.Sci Adv2025;11:eadw2182 PMCID:PMC12273758

[107] Tang X,Sun Q.Recent progress of biosensors based on thermoelectric effects for monitoring physical activity and environment monitoring.Soft Sci2025;5:11

[108] Chung HU,Lee JY.Binodal, wireless epidermal electronic systems with in-sensor analytics for neonatal intensive care.Science2019;363:eaau0780 PMCID:PMC6510306

[109] Li Z,Zhu N,Xie Z.Tip-enhanced sub-femtomolar steroid immunosensing via micropyramidal flexible conducting polymer electrodes for at-home monitoring of salivary sex hormones.ACS Nano2023;17:21935-46

[110] Chen S,Meng X.Starfish-inspired wearable bioelectronic systems for physiological signal monitoring during motion and real-time heart disease diagnosis.Sci Adv2025;11:eadv2406 PMCID:PMC11963991

[111] Choi Y,Lee S.All-printed chip-less wearable neuromorphic system for multimodal physicochemical health monitoring.Nat Commun2025;16:5689 PMCID:PMC12216833

[112] Declercq D,Glorieus M.Urinary sodium/creatinine ratio is a predictor for fractional sodium excretion and related to age in patients with cystic fibrosis.J Cyst Fibros2022;21:e136-40

[113] Calvo-López A,Alonso-Chamarro J.Serum/plasma potassium monitoring using potentiometric point-of-care microanalyzers with improved ion selective electrodes.Talanta2023;253:124100

[114] Krishnan SS,Welter J.Relationship between sweat chloride and pulmonary function in healthy young adults - a single-center, pilot study.Respir Med2025;245:108177

[115] Zhou Y,Li Z.High-performance graphdiyne oxide/Au nanoparticle electrode for electrochemical non-enzymatic glucose sensor.ACS Nano2025;19:25262-72

[116] Wu ZQ,Hua Y.A bifunctional wearable sensor based on a nanoporous membrane for simultaneous detection of sweat lactate and temperature.Anal Chem2024;96:3087-95

[117] Song H,Seo H.Wireless non-invasive monitoring of cholesterol using a smart contact lens.Adv Sci2022;9:e2203597 PMCID:PMC9534953

[118] Liu Y,Yang H.Skin-interfaced superhydrophobic insensible sweat sensors for evaluating body thermoregulation and skin barrier functions.ACS Nano2023;17:5588-99

[119] Kang M,Park SW.Wireless graphene-based thermal patch for obtaining temperature distribution and performing thermography.Sci Adv2022;8:eabm6693 PMCID:PMC9007510

[120] Li F,Xue H.Ultrasensitive flexible temperature sensors based on thermal-mediated ions migration dynamics in asymmetrical polymer bilayers.ACS Nano2024;18:7521-31

[121] Song L,Xu BB.Flexible plasmonic biosensors for healthcare monitoring: progress and prospects.ACS Nano2021;15:18822-47

[122] Zhong S,Wang DC.Passive isothermal flexible sensor enabled by smart thermal-regulating aerogels.Adv Mater2025;37:e2415386

[123] Yang YF,Zhang W.High-precision adaptive temperature control performance of thin positive temperature coefficient materials with ultra-high resistance-temperature coefficient.Appl Therm Eng2024;253:123767

[124] Zhang Z,Xu L,Li Z.High-performance flexible temperature sensors based on laser-irradiated Ag-MWCNTs/PEDOT:PSS.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2024;16:6078-87

[125] Li Z,Li Y.Synergizing nanosensor-enhanced wearable devices with machine learning for precision health management benefiting older adult populations.ACS Nano2025;19:26273-95 PMCID:PMC12312175

[126] Yu S,Zhao L,Wang L.Ultra-flexible transparent temperature sensor with laser-direct writing of silver nanowire electrodes.Inorg Chem Commun2024;170:113219

[127] Santos MSCS.Surface tension of liquid mixtures and metal alloys. Positive and negative temperature coefficients in alloys with remarkably high surface density.J Alloys Compd2023;939:168791

[128] Choi Y,So H.Negative temperature coefficient effect of TPU/SWCNT/PEDOT:PSS polymer matrices for wearable temperature sensors.Polym Test2024;141:108652

[129] Zhang W,Wang Y.Continuous core body temperature monitoring for heatstroke alert via a wearable in-ear thermometer.ACS Sens2025;10:1440-9

[130] Van Nguyen, D.; Song, P.; Manshaii, F.; Bell, J.; Chen, J.; Dinh, T. Advances in soft strain and pressure sensors.ACS Nano2025;19:6663-704

[131] Zhou Y,Yin J.Flexible metasurfaces for multifunctional interfaces.ACS Nano2024;18:2685-707

[132] Ha KH,Li Z.Soft capacitive pressure sensors: trends, challenges, and perspectives.ACS Nano2022;16:3442-8

[133] Li R,Bi Y.Research progress of flexible capacitive pressure sensor for sensitivity enhancement approaches.Sens Actuators A Phys2021;321:112425

[134] Ha KH,Jang H.Highly sensitive capacitive pressure sensors over a wide pressure range enabled by the hybrid responses of a highly porous nanocomposite.Adv Mater2021;33:e2103320

[135] Cao M,Fan S,Su D.Wearable piezoresistive pressure sensors based on 3D graphene.Chem Eng J2021;406:126777

[136] Ji F,Hang T.Flexible piezoresistive pressure sensors based on nanocellulose aerogels for human motion monitoring: a review.Compos Commun2022;35:101351

[137] Kim SW,Ko HJ.Mechanically robust and linearly sensitive soft piezoresistive pressure sensor for a wearable human-robot interaction system.ACS Nano2024;18:3151-60

[138] Bijender; Kumar, A. Recent progress in the fabrication and applications of flexible capacitive and resistive pressure sensors.Sens Actuators A Phys2022;344:113770

[139] Nassar H,Chirila R.Fully 3D printed piezoelectric pressure sensor for dynamic tactile sensing.Addit Manuf2023;71:103601

[140] Hou S,Assi DS.Tactile-transparent wearable sensor for clinician-friendly pulse wave velocity monitoring and cardiovascular risk profiling.ACS Nano2025;19:32822-35 PMCID:PMC12444991

[141] Shi W,Kuss MA.Digital light processing 4D printing of poloxamer micelles for facile fabrication of multifunctional biocompatible hydrogels as tailored wearable sensors.ACS Nano2024;18:7580-95

[142] Qin J,Hao YN.Flexible and stretchable capacitive sensors with different microstructures.Adv Mater2021;33:e2008267

[143] Han R,Mo Y.High anti-jamming flexible capacitive pressure sensors based on core–shell structured [e-mail] Funct Mater2023;33:2305531

[144] Xing D,Liu S.Microtetrahedral electrode-enhanced wearable capacitive dual-mode sensor for integrated tactile pressure and proximity detection.ACS Sens2026;11:371-83

[145] Ruan X,Zhu X.Biomimetic flexible capacitive sensor with loop electrode and snail tentacle structure for enhanced proximity and pressure sensing.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2025;17:32936-48

[146] Xu J,Luo X.Noncontact perception of thin-film transistors by the synergy of both capacitive and electrostatic induction mechanisms.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2024;16:54154-62

[147] Huang J,Li J.High-performance flexible capacitive proximity and pressure sensors with spiral electrodes for continuous human–machine interaction.ACS Materials Lett2022;4:2261-72

[148] Zhou Z.Functionally integrated conductive organohydrogel sensor for wearable motion detection, triboelectric nanogenerator and non-contact sensing.Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf2023;172:107603

[149] Xiong Y,Wang Y,Sun Q.Emerging iontronic sensing: materials, mechanisms, and applications.Research2022;2022:9867378 PMCID:PMC9414182

[150] Cao S,Chen Y,Huang C.A supercapacitive iontronic sensor using woven dielectric of surface-grooved fibers.IEEE Sens J2025;25:6087-94

[151] Tahir M,Haider WA.Co-electrodeposited porous PEDOT-CNT microelectrodes for integrated micro-supercapacitors with high energy density, high rate capability, and long cycling life.Nanoscale2019;11:7761-70

[152] Muzaffar A,Deshmukh K.A review on recent advances in hybrid supercapacitors: design, fabrication and applications.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2019;101:123-45

[153] Yoon H,Chhetry A.Ultra-sensitive and quick-responsive hybrid-supercapacitive iontronic pressure sensor for intuitive electronics and artificial tactile applications.Adv Mater Technol2022;7:2101743

[154] Jin Y,He Y.Flexible pressure sensors enhanced by 3D-printed microstructures.Adv Mater2025;37:e2500076

[155] Meng K,Wei W.Wearable pressure sensors for pulse wave monitoring.Adv Mater2022;34:e2109357

[156] Kim MK,Kim B.Flexible submental sensor patch with remote monitoring controls for management of oropharyngeal swallowing disorders.Sci Adv2019;5:eaay3210 PMCID:PMC6910838

[157] Wang Q,Wang C.A wireless, self-powered smart insole for gait monitoring and recognition via nonlinear synergistic pressure sensing.Sci Adv2025;11:eadu1598 PMCID:PMC12002114

[158] Huang W,Wang Z,Zhang Y.Dual nanozyme based on ultrathin 2D conductive MOF nanosheets intergraded with gold nanoparticles for electrochemical biosensing of H₂O₂ in cancer cells.Talanta2022;249:123612

[159] Zhang J,Ma Q.Large-area grown ultrathin molybdenum oxides for label-free sensitive biomarker detection.Nanoscale2024;16:13061-70

[160] Yan X,Yin T,Zhou H.Photoelectrochemical biosensing platform based on in situ generated ultrathin covalent organic framework film and AgInS₂ QDs for dual target detection of HIV and CEA.Biosens Bioelectron2022;217:114694

[161] Cheng L,Liu G.A flexible pressure sensor based on silicon nanomembrane.Biosensors2023;13:131 PMCID:PMC9856423

[162] Li S,Jia L.A bio-inspired neuromorphic pressure afferent nerve based on fully inkjet-printed synaptic transistor.Appl Phys Lett2025;127:063301

[163] Yuan J,Zhao Y.Skin-adaptive focused flexible micromachined ultrasound transducers for wearable cardiovascular health monitoring.Sci Adv2025;11:eadw7632 PMCID:PMC12422204

[164] Kil HJ.Carotid artery monitoring patch using a supercapacitive pressure sensor with piezoelectricity.Nano Energy2023;114:108636

[165] Choi J,Baker LB.Skin-interfaced systems for sweat collection and analytics.Sci Adv2018;4:eaar3921 PMCID:PMC5817925

[166] Sim D,Slocik JM.Biomarkers and detection platforms for human health and performance monitoring: a review.Adv Sci2022;9:e2104426 PMCID:PMC8895156

[167] Duan H,He S.Wearable electrochemical biosensors for advanced healthcare monitoring.Adv Sci2025;12:e2411433 PMCID:PMC11727287

[168] Manjakkal L,Nathan A,Dahiya R.Energy autonomous sweat-based wearable systems.Adv Mater2021;33:e2100899 PMCID:PMC11481680

[169] Wang T,Zhu X.High-entropy Prussian blue analogues-mediated flexible field-effect transistor for wearable sweat dopamine monitoring.Biosens Bioelectron2025;289:117889

[170] Childs A,Lasalde-Ramírez JA,Sempionatto JR.Diving into sweat: advances, challenges, and future directions in wearable sweat sensing.ACS Nano2024;18:24605-16 PMCID:PMC12129723

[171] Gao F,Zhang L.Wearable and flexible electrochemical sensors for sweat analysis: a review.Microsyst Nanoeng2023;9:1 PMCID:PMC9805458

[172] Li S,Cao Z,Shi Y.Advanced wearable microfluidic sensors for healthcare monitoring.Small2020;16:e1903822

[173] Ma X,Huang L.A monolithically integrated in-textile wristband for wireless epidermal biosensing.Sci Adv2023;9:eadj2763 PMCID:PMC10637736

[174] Son J,Lee S.Cactus-spine-inspired sweat-collecting patch for fast and continuous monitoring of sweat.Adv Mater2021;33:e2102740

[175] Sun Y,Lu Q.Stretchable and smart wettable sensing patch with guided liquid flow for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis.ACS Nano2024;18:2335-45

[176] Qu M,Wang J.Superhydrophobic, humidity-resistant, and flexible triboelectric nanogenerators for biomechanical energy harvesting and wearable self-powered sensing.ACS Appl Nano Mater2022;5:9840-51

[177] Yue X,Zhang L.Simple, skin-attachable, and multifunctional colorimetric sweat sensor.ACS Sens2022;7:2198-208

[178] Li F,Zhang L.Skin-conformal multifunctional microfluidic colorimetric detection device for multiplexed sweat analysis.ACS Sens2025;10:5968-80

[179] Kim J,Luan H.A skin-interfaced, miniaturized microfluidic analysis and delivery system for colorimetric measurements of nutrients in sweat and supply of vitamins through the skin.Adv Sci2022;9:e2103331 PMCID:PMC8805554

[180] Cho SH,Lv Z.Soft, wearable, microfluidic system for fluorometric analysis of loss of amino acids through eccrine sweat.Lab Chip2025;25:1647-55 PMCID:PMC11970843

[181] Vinoth R,Mathiyarasu J.Fully printed wearable microfluidic devices for high-throughput sweat sampling and multiplexed electrochemical analysis.ACS Sens2021;6:1174-86

[182] Zhang Y,Han J,Li F.High-sensitivity flexible electrochemical sensor for real-time multi-analyte sweat analysis.Talanta2025;287:127644

[183] Wang X,Yu B.Uncovering the sweat biofouling components and distributions in electrochemical sensors.Anal Chem2022;94:14402-9

[184] Choi J,Reeder JT.Soft, skin-integrated multifunctional microfluidic systems for accurate colorimetric analysis of sweat biomarkers and temperature.ACS Sens2019;4:379-88

[185] Shi H,Zeng Y.Wearable tesla valve-based sweat collection device for sweat colorimetric analysis.Talanta2022;240:123208

[186] Choi DH,Kitchen GB,Searson PC.A capacitive sweat rate sensor for continuous and real-time monitoring of sweat loss.ACS Sens2020;5:3821-6

[187] Zhong B,Wang L.Wearable sweat loss measuring devices: from the role of sweat loss to advanced mechanisms and designs.Adv Sci2022;9:e2103257 PMCID:PMC8728835

[188] Jang J,Shin H.Smart contact lens and transparent heat patch for remote monitoring and therapy of chronic ocular surface inflammation using mobiles.Sci Adv2021;7:eabf7194 PMCID:PMC8011975

[189] Tian Y,Xu L.Alloyed AuPt nanoframes loaded on h-BN nanosheets as an ingenious ultrasensitive near-infrared photoelectrochemical biosensor for accurate monitoring glucose in human tears.Biosens Bioelectron2021;192:113490

[190] Moreddu R,Adams H.Integration of paper microfluidic sensors into contact lenses for tear fluid analysis.Lab Chip2020;20:3970-9

[191] Zhou F,Chen K,Shi Z.Flexible electrochemical sensor with Fe/Co bimetallic oxides for sensitive analysis of glucose in human tears.Anal Chim Acta2023;1243:340781

[192] Mukundan G.Nickel-cobalt metal-organic frameworks based flexible hydrogel as a wearable contact lens for electrochemical sensing of urea in tear samples.Mikrochim Acta2024;191:252

[193] Chen Z,Yu W,Huang Y.Machine learning-driven wearable sweat sensors with AgNW/MXene for non-invasive SERS-based cardiovascular disease detection.ACS Appl Nano Mater2025;8:5602-10

[194] Park S,Jeon HJ.Cerium oxide nanoparticle-containing colorimetric contact lenses for noninvasively monitoring human tear glucose.ACS Appl Nano Mater2021;4:5198-210

[195] Wang Z,Sui X.An artificial intelligence-assisted microfluidic colorimetric wearable sensor system for monitoring of key tear biomarkers.npj Flex Electron2024;8:35

[196] Park J,Kim SY.Soft, smart contact lenses with integrations of wireless circuits, glucose sensors, and displays.Sci Adv2018;4:eaap9841 PMCID:PMC5787380

[197] Ku M,Won JE.Smart, soft contact lens for wireless immunosensing of cortisol.Sci Adv2020;6:eabb2891 PMCID:PMC7455488

[198] Yin S,Li R,Yao C.Wearable, biocompatible, and dual-emission ocular multisensor patch for continuous profiling of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in tears.ACS Nano2024;18:18522-33

[199] Paqué PN,Jenzer JS.Microbial analysis of saliva to identify oral diseases using a point-of-care compatible qPCR assay.J Clin Med2020;9:2945 PMCID:PMC7565348

[200] Santonocito R,Pappalardo A.Detection of human salivary stress biomarkers using an easy-to-use array sensor based on fluorescent organic molecules.Biosens Bioelectron2025;270:116986

[201] Gu M,Hu J.Bio-inspired nanoengineered wood for scalable monolithic gas sensor fabrication.Adv Mater2025;37:e2507829

[202] García-Carmona L,Sempionatto JR.Pacifier biosensor: toward noninvasive saliva biomarker monitoring.Anal Chem2019;91:13883-91

[203] Sun M,Xin T.A flexible microfluidic chip-based universal fully integrated nanoelectronic system with point-of-care raw sweat, tears, or saliva glucose monitoring for potential noninvasive glucose management.Anal Chem2022;94:1890-900

[204] Bi Y,Wang J.Universal fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for the multiple electrolyte and metabolite monitoring in raw sweat, saliva, or urine.Anal Chem2023;95:6690-9

[205] Bordbar MM,Sheini A.Monitoring saliva compositions for non-invasive detection of diabetes using a colorimetric-based multiple sensor.Sci Rep2023;13:16174 PMCID:PMC10533566

[206] Chi YJ,Ahn S.A colorimetric biosensor based on a biodegradable fluidic device capable of efficient saliva sampling and salivary biomarker detection.Sens Actuators B Chem2023;396:134601

[207] Tu J,Ulloa JC.Stressomic: a wearable microfluidic biosensor for dynamic profiling of multiple stress hormones in sweat.Sci Adv2025;11:eadx6491 PMCID:PMC12327446

[208] Tang W,Sempionatto JR,Teymourian H.Touch-based stressless cortisol sensing.Adv Mater2021;33:e2008465

[209] Lou C,Hou Y.Microfluidic platforms for real-time in situ monitoring of biomarkers for cellular processes.Adv Mater2024;36:e2307051

[210] Cho S,Kwon C.Smart bioelectronic nanomesh face masks with permeability and flexibility for monitoring cortisol in saliva.ACS Sens2025;10:148-58

[211] Kim J,de Araujo WR.Wearable salivary uric acid mouthguard biosensor with integrated wireless electronics.Biosens Bioelectron2015;74:1061-8 PMCID:PMC4718709

[212] Lim HR,Park S.Smart bioelectronic pacifier for real-time continuous monitoring of salivary electrolytes.Biosens Bioelectron2022;210:114329

[213] Zhou S,Lin M,Xu S.Wearable ultrasound technology.Nat Rev Bioeng2025;3:835-54

[214] Huang H,Lin M.Emerging wearable ultrasound technology.IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control2024;71:713-29 PMCID:PMC11263711

[215] Amado-Rey AB,Stieglitz T.Towards ultrasound wearable technology for cardiovascular monitoring: from device development to clinical validation.IEEE Rev Biomed Eng2025;18:93-112

[216] Dutta A,Abdullah AM.Closely packed stretchable ultrasound array fabricated with surface charge engineering for contactless gesture and materials detection.Adv Sci2024;11:e2303403 PMCID:PMC11022739

[217] Wang B,Li Y.A 3D-printed adaptive origami-structured wearable ultrasound transducer for arterial blood pressure monitoring.Measurement2026;260:119815

[218] Zou F,Zhuang W.A fully integrated conformal wearable ultrasound patch for continuous sonodynamic therapy.Adv Mater2024;36:e2409528

[219] Guo M,Liu J,Li M.Wearable pressure sensor based on triboelectric nanogenerator for information encoding, gesture recognition, and wireless real-time robot control.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:2419209

[220] Wan Z,Fu Y.Wearable multimodal flexible sensor based on layer-by-layer aerogel/nanofibers composite structure for real-time information encoding and gesture recognition.Chem Eng J2025;521:166455

[221] Zhang S,Tchantchane R.A wearable human–machine-interface (HMI) system based on colocated EMG-pFMG sensing for hand gesture recognition.IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron2025;30:369-80

[222] Chen X,Chen Y.Biomimetic contact behavior inspired tactile sensing array with programmable microdomes pattern by scalable and consistent fabrication.Adv Sci2024;11:e2408082 PMCID:PMC11578381

[223] Li H,Yin F,Shen G.A labor-division cooperation electronic palm system for high-precision crosstalk-free cognition of pressure and temperature.Adv Mater2026;38:e10241

[224] Ates HC,Gonzalez-Macia L.End-to-end design of wearable sensors.Nat Rev Mater2022;7:887-907 PMCID:PMC9306444

[225] Mu G,Yan Z,Wang Q.Recent advancements in wearable sensors: integration with machine learning for human-machine interaction.RSC Adv2025;15:7844-54 PMCID:PMC11897882

[226] Ma CB,Sun M.Emerging multifunctional wearable sensors: integrating multimodal sweat analysis and advanced material technologies for next-generation health monitoring.ACS Sens2025;10:2388-408

[227] Kong L,Zhang T.Wireless technologies in flexible and wearable sensing: from materials design, system integration to applications.Adv Mater2024;36:e2400333

[228] Cao Q,Pan Y.Robotic wireless capsule endoscopy: recent advances and upcoming technologies.Nat Commun2024;15:4597 PMCID:PMC11139981

[229] Yue W,Lee JC.Advancements in passive wireless sensing systems in monitoring harsh environment and healthcare applications.Nanomicro Lett2025;17:106 PMCID:PMC11712043

[230] Gutruf P.Towards a digitally connected body for holistic and continuous health insight.Commun Mater2024;5:2

[231] Zhang X,Zheng Z.Flexible temperature sensor with high reproducibility and wireless closed-loop system for decoupled multimodal health monitoring and personalized thermoregulation.Adv Mater2024;36:e2407859

[232] Guo Y,Li Y,Lee JC.Incorporating wireless strategies to wearable devices enabled by a photocurable hydrogel for monitoring pressure information.Adv Mater2023;35:e2300855

[233] Dong H,Liu Y.Wearable, breathable, and wireless gas sensor enables highly selective exhaled ammonia detection and real-time noninvasive illness diagnosis.ACS Sens2025;10:3964-75

[234] Yan M,Diao S.Smart home sleep respiratory monitoring system based on a breath-responsive covalent organic framework.ACS Nano2024;18:728-37

[235] Kaveh R,Pu L,Muller R.Wireless ear EEG to monitor drowsiness.Nat Commun2024;15:6520 PMCID:PMC11297174

[236] Wang S,He J.A multi-user wearable waistband system for real-time health monitoring of respiration, ECG, and body temperature.Microelectron Eng2025;299:112346

[237] Li J,Zhou J.Thin, soft, wearable system for continuous wireless monitoring of artery blood pressure.Nat Commun2023;14:5009 PMCID:PMC10435523

[238] Song Y,Yu Y.Wireless battery-free wearable sweat sensor powered by human motion.Sci Adv2020;6:eaay9842 PMCID:PMC7527225

[239] Zhao H,Zhang X.A fully integrated wearable sweat sensing patch for online analysis of multiple Parkinson’s disease-related biomarkers.Adv Mater2025;37:e2504534

[240] Alam MS,Choi J.Multifunctional wearable system for mapping body temperature and analyzing sweat.ACS Sens2023;8:1980-8

[241] Jiang D,Zhan W.Skin-interfaced wearable sensor for long-term reliable monitoring of uric acid and pH in sweat.Nano Lett2025;25:1427-35

[242] Xu C,Sempionatto JR.A physicochemical-sensing electronic skin for stress response monitoring.Nat Electron2024;7:168-79 PMCID:PMC10906959

[243] Lee JP,Jang Y.Encoding of multi-modal emotional information via personalized skin-integrated wireless facial interface.Nat Commun2024;15:530 PMCID:PMC10789773

[244] Yoo JY,Shalish W.Wireless broadband acousto-mechanical sensing system for continuous physiological monitoring.Nat Med2023;29:3137-48

[245] Xu K,Lu Y.A wearable body condition sensor system with wireless feedback alarm functions.Adv Mater2021;33:e2008701

[246] Li M,Xu T.Multi-biosensing hairband for emergency health assessment.Nat Commun2025;16:7224 PMCID:PMC12325749

[247] Jin T,Ullah I.A wireless operated flexible bioelectronic microneedle patch for actively controlled transdermal drug delivery.Adv Mater2025;37:e2417136

[248] Zhou Q,Geng Z.A flexible smart healthcare platform conjugated with artificial epidermis assembled by three-dimensionally conductive MOF network for gas and pressure sensing.Nanomicro Lett2024;17:50 PMCID:PMC11511809

[249] Lin M,Gao X.A fully integrated wearable ultrasound system to monitor deep tissues in moving subjects.Nat Biotechnol2024;42:448-57

[250] Gao X,Lin M.A wearable echomyography system based on a single transducer.Nat Electron2024;7:1035-46 PMCID:PMC12269893

[251] Zhang H,Pang K.A wearable, highly sensitive piezoresistive pressure sensor based on MXene/NiMoO₄ @CMF and mimicking the hedgehog skin spike structure for its real-time monitoring of human movement.ACS Appl Electron Mater2024;6:7503-11

[252] Aliyana AK,Tangsirinaruenart O.A garment-integrated textile stitch-based strain sensor device, IoT-Enabled for enhanced wearable sportswear applications.Results Eng2024;23:102794

[253] Li H,Lu F.Towards adaptive bioelectronic wound therapy with integrated real-time diagnostics and machine learning–driven closed-loop control.npj Biomed Innov2025;2:31

[254] Choi M,Kim SW.Battery‐free, wireless multi‐sensing platform for comprehensive management of pressure injury and hygiene.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:e06774

[255] Ge Z,Tao Y.Wireless and closed-loop smart dressing for exudate management and on-demand treatment of chronic wounds.Adv Mater2023;35:e2304005

[256] Cho S,Ahn J.Wireless, battery‐free, optoelectronic diagnostic sensor integrated colorimetric dressing for advanced wound care.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2316196

[257] Escobedo P,López-Ruiz N.Smart facemask for wireless CO₂ monitoring.Nat Commun2022;13:72 PMCID:PMC8748626

[258] Xu L,Li Q.Printing nacre‐mimetic MXene‐based E‐textile devices for sensing and breathing‐pattern recognition using machine learning.Adv Funct Mater2025;35:e08370

[259] Cho S,Park H.Wireless, multimodal sensors for continuous measurement of pressure, temperature, and hydration of patients in wheelchair.npj Flex Electron2023;7:8

[260] Li H,Wong TH.Wireless, battery-free, multifunctional integrated bioelectronics for respiratory pathogens monitoring and severity evaluation.Nat Commun2023;14:7539 PMCID:PMC10661182

[261] Shi Z,Zhou LA.Wireless and battery-free wearable biosensing of riboflavin in sweat for precision nutrition.Biosens Bioelectron2024;251:116136

[262] Mirzajani H,Mirlou F.An ultra-compact and wireless tag for battery-free sweat glucose monitoring.Biosens Bioelectron2022;213:114450

[263] Park W,Kim J.In-depth correlation analysis between tear glucose and blood glucose using a wireless smart contact lens.Nat Commun2024;15:2828 PMCID:PMC10987615

[264] Sailapu SK,Merino-Jimenez I,Sabaté N.Towards a REASSURED reality: a less-is-more electronic design strategy for self-powered glucose test.Biosens Bioelectron2024;243:115708

[265] Zhao H,Krishnan S.A passive back posture monitoring system using orthogonal RFID design.IEEE Sens J2024;24:35610-20

[266] Liu J,Liu J.RF-care: RFID-based human pose estimation for nursing-care applications under visual occlusion.IEEE Sens J2024;24:35359-66

[267] Zhou Z,Fu J.Fully integrated passive wireless sensor with mechanical-electrical double-gradient for multifunctional healthcare monitoring.Nano Lett2024;24:14781-9

[268] López-Soriano S,Melià-Seguí J.A battery-less and low-cost RFID sensor for unassisted multilevel detection of sweat loss.IEEE Sens J2024;24:42028-37

[269] Zhang H,Pei J,Li M.RF-sign: position-independent sign language recognition using passive RFID tags.IEEE Internet Things J2024;11:9056-71

[270] Sun Y,Feng S.Projection stereolithography 3D printing high-conductive hydrogel for flexible passive wireless sensing.Adv Mater2024;36:e2400103

[271] Lin J,Zhang P.Wireless bioelectronics for in vivo pressure monitoring with mechanically-compliant hydrogel biointerfaces.Adv Mater2024;36:e2400181

[272] Xu Y,Zhao G.Phase-separated porous nanocomposite with ultralow percolation threshold for wireless bioelectronics.Nat Nanotechnol2024;19:1158-67 PMCID:PMC11330368

[273] Kwon K,Won SM.A battery-less wireless implant for the continuous monitoring of vascular pressure, flow rate and temperature.Nat Biomed Eng2023;7:1215-28

[274] Yang C,Liu J.Intelligent wireless theranostic contact lens for electrical sensing and regulation of intraocular pressure.Nat Commun2022;13:2556 PMCID:PMC9114010

[275] Liu TL,Chen S,Ma Z.Battery-free, tuning circuit-inspired wireless sensor systems for detection of multiple biomarkers in bodily fluids.Sci Adv2022;8:eabo7049 PMCID:PMC9258955

[276] Kim J,Lee MS.Wearable smart sensor systems integrated on soft contact lenses for wireless ocular diagnostics.Nat Commun2017;8:14997 PMCID:PMC5414034

[277] Zhu H,Xu S.Frequency-encoded eye tracking smart contact lens for human-machine interaction.Nat Commun2024;15:3588 PMCID:PMC11055864

[278] Wu E,Kim N.Wireless passive flexible radio frequency tactile sensor for material recognition.Nano Lett2025;25:7960-8

[279] Galli V,Cuthbert TJ,Hannigan BC.Passive and wireless all-textile wearable sensor system.Adv Sci2023;10:e2206665 PMCID:PMC10401120

[280] Yousefi Darestani, M. R.; Lange, D.; Chew, B. H.; Takahata, K. Electromechanically functionalized ureteral stents for wireless obstruction monitoring.ACS Biomater Sci Eng2023;9:4392-403

[281] Nan K,Li D.An ingestible, battery-free, tissue-adhering robotic interface for non-invasive and chronic electrostimulation of the gut.Nat Commun2024;15:6749 PMCID:PMC11310346

[282] Woods JE,Chen EC.Distributed battery-free bioelectronic implants with improved network power transfer efficiency via magnetoelectrics.Nat Biomed Eng2025; PMCID:PMC12557647

[283] Kim H,Wong G,Yeo WH.Advances in wireless, batteryless, implantable electronics for real-time, continuous physiological monitoring.Nanomicro Lett2023;16:52 PMCID:PMC10724104

[284] Kim CY,Jeong EY.Wireless technologies for wearable electronics: a review.Adv Elect Mater2025;11:2400884

[285] Inman A,Zhang Y,Gogotsi Y.Obtaining a practical wearable supercapacitor power supply.Adv Energy Mater2024;14:2402367

[286] Zhao D,Xu D.Multiple redox‐active cyano‐substituted organic compound integrated with MXene nanosheets for high‐performance flexible aqueous Zn‐ion battery.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2316182

[287] Yang L,Zhang Y.Single wire capacitive wireless power transfer system for wearable biomedical sensors based on flexible graphene film material.IEEE Trans Biomed Circuits Syst2022;16:1337-47

[288] Park WY,Moon J.Mechanically robust self-organized crack-free nanocellular graphene with outstanding electrochemical properties in sodium ion battery.Adv Mater2024;36:e2311792

[289] Liang X,Lin Z,Liang W.A sulfur-infiltrated mesoporous silica/CNT composite-based functional interlayer for enhanced Li–S battery performance.Appl Phys Lett2024;125:053903

[290] Han X,Liu YY.Liquid gallium-assisted pyrolysis of MOF affording CNT non-hollow frameworks in high yields for high-performance sodium-ion battery anode.Adv Mater2024;36:e2407274

[291] Manjakkal L,Yogeswaran N,Dahiya R.A wearable supercapacitor based on conductive PEDOT:PSS-coated cloth and a sweat electrolyte.Adv Mater2020;32:e1907254

[292] Hong Y,Zhang Y.Energetic and durable all-polymer aqueous battery for sustainable, flexible power.Nat Commun2024;15:9539 PMCID:PMC11535528

[293] Li W,Chen L,Ge Q.Self-powered wireless flexible ionogel wearable devices.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2023;15:14768-76

[294] Zhao C,Liang H.Autonomous self-healing strategy for flexible fiber lithium-ion battery with ultra-high mechanical properties and volumetric energy densities.Chem Eng J2024;496:154153

[295] Wu R,Liu S,Mo R.Interface-engineered self-healing quasi-solid fiber battery with high energy density and robust mechanical properties.Adv Fiber Mater2025;7:1998-2012

[296] Wang R,Fang B,Mo R.Interface‐engineered strategy on carbon nanotubes to chemical stabilize graphene as a self‐healing fiber electrode for superior capacitive deionization.Energy Environ Mater2025;e70141

[297] Li C,Wang J.Ultrathin and capacity-tunable lithium metal wires for lithium-based fiber batteries.Natl Sci Rev2025;12:nwae480 PMCID:PMC11809254

[298] Wu R,Wang R,Mo R.Nano-interfacial design of self-healable high-strength electrodes with high desalination efficiency and cycling stability.Chem Eng J2025;525:170242

[299] Yan W,Cai X,Zhang G.Self-powered and wireless physiological monitoring system with integrated power supply and sensors.Nano Energy2023;108:108203

[300] Zhao T,Sun C.Wearable biosensors for real-time sweat analysis and body motion capture based on stretchable fiber-based triboelectric nanogenerators.Biosens Bioelectron2022;205:114115

[301] Liang L,Li P.A wearable multimodal health monitoring bracelet powered by high-power-density flexible thermoelectric generators.Device2025;3:100748

[302] Yuan J,Wei C.A fully self-powered wearable leg movement sensing system for human health monitoring.Adv Sci2023;10:e2303114 PMCID:PMC10582417

[303] Ding S,Yin L.A fingertip-wearable microgrid system for autonomous energy management and metabolic monitoring.Nat Electron2024;7:788-99

[304] Chen Y,Li G,Gao J.Metal hydrogel‐based integrated wearable biofuel cell for self‐powered epidermal sweat biomarker monitoring.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2404329

[305] Dong L,Han C,Yang F.Advancement of AI-assisted self-powered healthcare sensing systems.MedMat2025;2:55-77

[306] Kim SH,Avila R.Strain-invariant stretchable radio-frequency electronics.Nature2024;629:1047-54

[307] Shen Q,Wang R.Liquid metal-based soft, hermetic, and wireless-communicable seals for stretchable systems.Science2023;379:488-93

[308] Liu Y,Matsuhisa N.Unperceivable designs of wearable electronics.Adv Mater2025;37:e2502727 PMCID:PMC12691906

[309] Li W,Tang W.Stretchable antenna arrays‐enabled multi‐target balloon wireless communication system.Adv Funct Mater2025;36:e10521

[310] Guo X,Zhou Z.Direct-ink-writing printed stretchable eutectic gallium-indium antenna for robust wireless communication.Adv Sci2025;12:e2414285 PMCID:PMC12140361

[311] Wang Y.Emerging epidermal electrodes towards digital health and on-skin digitalization.Soft Sci2024;4:5

[312] Bhatia A,Stuart T,Clausen DM.Wireless battery-free and fully implantable organ interfaces.Chem Rev2024;124:2205-80

[313] Pillai AS,Benny S,Chandran A.Perforated PVP encapsulated AgNWs for high mass loading in silver nanowire inks for printed RFID integrated wearable smart bands.J Mater Chem C2024;12:575-92

[314] Li X,Pan J.Rapid and on-site wireless immunoassay of respiratory virus aerosols via hydrogel-modulated resonators.Nat Commun2024;15:4035 PMCID:PMC11091083

[315] Gu H,Gao Z.A battery‐free wireless tactile sensor for multimodal force perception.Adv Funct Mater2024;34:2410661

[316] Wang H,Fu J.A general self-powered wireless sensing solution based on triboelectric-discharge effect.Nano Energy2023;105:107982

[317] Si J,Sun D.Breakdown discharge effect enabled self-powered multi-mechanism wireless sensing scheme.Nano Energy2025;135:110671

[318] Song M,Yong H.Full textile-based body-coupled electrical stimulation for wireless, battery-free, and wearable bioelectronics.npj Flex Electron2024;8:76

[319] Xie B,Guo Y.Triboelectric discharge based self-powered wireless sensing system for smart home application.Soft Sci2025;5:54

[320] Pan Y,Gao X.A passive wireless surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor system for detecting warfare agents based on fluoroalcohol polysiloxane film.Microsyst Nanoeng2024;10:4 PMCID:PMC10764927

[321] Gao X,Hu F.Wireless and passive SAW-based humidity sensor employing SiO₂ thin film.IEEE Sens J2023;23:9936-42

[322] Liang X,Tan Q.Temperature, pressure, and humidity SAW sensor based on coplanar integrated LGS.Microsyst Nanoeng2023;9:110 PMCID:PMC10493225

[323] Niu S,Beker L.A wireless body area sensor network based on stretchable passive tags.Nat Electron2019;2:361-8

[324] Ye F,Zargari A.Passive wireless body joint‐monitoring networks with textile‐integrated, strongly coupled magnetic resonators.Adv Elect Mater2025;11:2400450

[325] Zhu X,Xie X,Zhang X.A robust near-field body area network based on coaxially-shielded textile metamaterial.Nat Commun2024;15:6589 PMCID:PMC11297955

[326] Mirlou F,Abbasiasl T.A wireless reader for detecting frequency shift of passive sensors.Biosens Bioelectron X2025;26:100668

[327] Tian X,Kurt SA.Implant-to-implant wireless networking with metamaterial textiles.Nat Commun2023;14:4335 PMCID:PMC10356940

[328] Alqaderi AIJ.Carbon-based flexible strain sensors: recent advances and performance insights in human motion detection.Chem Eng J2025;513:162609

[329] Sim JH,Kim SB.Wireless organic light-emitting diode contact lenses for on-eye wearable light sources and their application to personalized health monitoring.ACS Nano2025;19:17478-89

[330] Kasper KA,Perez DL.Continuous operation of battery-free implants enables advanced fracture recovery monitoring.Sci Adv2025;11:eadt7488 PMCID:PMC12063648

[331] Feng J,Wang K.An energy-efficient flexible multi-modal wireless sweat sensing system based on laser induced graphene.Sensors2023;23:4818 PMCID:PMC10221498

[332] Wearable Sensing. T-Sens: surface electromyogram (sEMG). https://wearablesensing.com/t-sens-semg/. (accessed 2026-03-03)

[333] TRENDHUNTER. Belt-based wearable sensors: vital belt. https://www.trendhunter.com/trends/vital-belt. (accessed 2026-03-03)

[334] Samsung. Explore Galaxy Ring. https://www.samsung.com/us/rings/galaxy-ring/. (accessed 2026-03-03)