Physical activity, exercise, and chronic diseases: A brief review

Abstract

Chronic diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide with increasing prevalence in all age groups, genders, and ethnicities. Most chronic disease deaths occur in middle-to low-income countries but are also a significant health problem in developed nations. Multiple chronic diseases now affect children and adolescents as well as adults. Being physically inactive is associated with increased chronic disease risk. Global societies are being negatively impacted by the increasing prevalence of chronic disease which is directly related to rising healthcare expenditures, workforce complications regarding attendance and productivity, military personnel recruitment, and academic success. However, increased physical activity (PA) and exercise are associated with reduced chronic disease risk. Most physiologic systems in the body benefit positively from PA and exercise by primary disease prevention and secondary disease prevention/treatment. The purpose of this brief review is to describe the significant global problem of chronic diseases for adults and children, and how PA and exercise can provide a non-invasive means for added prevention and treatment.

Keywords

Chronic disease / Noncommunicable diseases / Obesity / Diabetes / Cardiovascular disease / Cancer / Physical activity / Exercise

References

[[1]] Noncommunicable Diseases. World health organization.

[[2]] C.J. Murray, A.D. Lopez. Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990-2020: global burden of disease study. Lancet, 349 (9064) ( 1997), pp. 1498-1504, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)07492-2

[[3]] A. Alwan, T. Armstrong, D. Bettcher, et al.. Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010. World Health Organization ( 2011)

[[4]] M. Naghavi, T. Abajobir, D. Bettcher, et al.. Global, regional, and national age-sex specific mortality for 264 causes of death, 1980-2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. The Lancet, 390 ( 2017), pp. 1151-1210, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32152-9

[[5]] S.J. Olshansky, D.J. Passaro, R.C. Hershow, et al.. A potential decline in life expectancy in the United States in the 21st century. N Engl J Med, 352 (11) ( 2005), pp. 1138-1145, DOI: 10.1056/NEJMsr043743

[[6]] GBD Mortality,Causes of Death Collaborators. Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death,1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet, 388

( 10053 (2016), pp. 1459-1544, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16 ) 31012-1

[[7]] S.L. Murphy, J. Xu, K.D. Kochanek, et al.. Deaths: final data for 2015. Natl Vital Stat Rep, 66 (6) ( 2017)

[[8]] S.A. Lear, W. Hu, S. Rangarajan, et al.. The effect of physical activity on mortality and cardiovascular disease in 130 000 people from 17 high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries: the PURE study. Lancet, 390 (10113) ( 2017), pp. 2643-2654, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31634-3

[[9]] B.K. Pedersen, B. Saltin. Exercise as medicine - evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in 26 different chronic diseases. Scand J Med Sci Sport, 25 (Suppl 3) ( 2015), pp. 1-72, DOI: 10.1111/sms.12581

[[10]] P.T. Katzmarzyk, S.A. Lear. Physical activity for obese individuals: a systematic review of effects on chronic disease risk factors. Obes Rev, 13 (2) ( 2012), pp. 95-105, DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00933.x

[[11]] F.W. Booth, S.J. Lees. Fundamental questions about genes, inactivity, and chronic diseases. Physiol Genom, 28 (2) ( 2007), pp. 146-157, DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00174.2006

[[12]] G. Danaei, E.L. Ding, D. Mozaffarian, et al.. The preventable causes of death in the United States: comparative risk assessment of dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors. PLoS Med, 6 (4) ( 2009), Article e1000058, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000058

[[13]] M. Fogelholm. Physical activity, fitness and fatness: relations to mortality, morbidity and disease risk factors. A systematic review. Obes Rev, 11 (3) ( 2010), pp. 202-221, DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2009.00653.x

[[14]] T. Li, S. Wei, Y. Shi, et al.. The dose-response effect of physical activity on cancer mortality: findings from 71 prospective cohort studies. Br J Sports Med, 50 (6) ( 2016), pp. 339-345, DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-094927

[[15]] P. Ades, G. Balady, K. Berra. Transforming exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation programs into secondary prevention centers: a national imperative. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev, 21 (5) ( 2001), pp. 263-272

[[16]] N.K. Wenger, E.S. Froelicher, L.K. Smith, et al.. Cardiac rehabilitation as secondary prevention. Agency for health care policy and research and national heart, lung, and blood institute. Clin Pract Guidel Quick Ref Guide Clin, 17 ( 1995), pp. 1-23

[[17]] D.E. Warburton, C.W. Nicol, S.S. Bredin. Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ (Can Med Assoc J), 174 (6) ( 2006), pp. 801-809, DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.051351

[[18]] R.F. Hamman, R.R. Wing, S.L. Edelstein, et al.. Effect of weight loss with lifestyle intervention on risk of diabetes. Diabetes Care, 29 (9) ( 2006), pp. 2102-2107, DOI: 10.2337/dc06-0560

[[19]] L. Anderson, N. Oldridge, D.R. Thompson, et al.. Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease: cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol, 67 (1) ( 2016), pp. 1-12, DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2015.10.044

[[20]] A.S. Fauci. Infectious diseases: considerations for the 21st century. Clin Infect Dis, 32 (5) ( 2001), pp. 675-685, DOI: 10.1086/319235

[[21]] D. Yach, C. Hawkes, C.L. Gould, et al.. The global burden of chronic diseases: overcoming impediments to prevention and control. J Am Med Assoc, 291 (21) ( 2004), pp. 2616-2622, DOI: 10.1001/jama.291.21.2616

[[22]] P. Piot, A. Caldwell, P. Lamptey, et al.. Addressing the growing burden of non-communicable disease by leveraging lessons from infectious disease management. J Glob Health, 6 (1) ( 2016), Article 010304, DOI: 10.7189/jogh.06.010304

[[23]] World Health Organization. Country and regional data on diabetes.

[[24]] World Health Organization.Global Tuberculosis Report. World Health Organization (2018). Report: WHO/CDS/TB/2018.25

[[25]] K. Kahn, M.L. Garenne, M.A. Collinson, et al.. Mortality trends in a new South Africa: hard to make a fresh start. Scand J Public Health Suppl, 69 ( 2007), pp. 26-34, DOI: 10.1080/14034950701355668

[[26]] S. Barquera, A. Pedroza-Tobias, C. Medina, et al.. Global overview of the epidemiology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Arch Med Res, 46 (5) ( 2015), pp. 328-338, DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2015.06.006

[[27]] A. Alwan, D. MacLean, L. Riley, et al.. Monitoring and surveillance of chronic non-communicable diseases: progress and capacity in high-burden countries. The Lancet, 376 (9755) ( 2010), pp. 1861-1868, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61853-3

[[28]] T.J. Bollyky, T. Templin, M. Cohen, et al.. Lower-income countries that face the most rapid shift in noncommunicable disease burden are also the least prepared. Health Aff (Millwood), 36 (11) ( 2017), pp. 1866-1875, DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.2017.0708

[[29]] L. Guariguata, D.R. Whiting, I. Hambleton, et al.. Global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2013 and projections for 2035. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 103 (2) ( 2014), pp. 137-149, DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2013.11.002

[[30]] L.A. Torre, F. Bray, R.L. Siegel, J. Ferlay, J. Lortet-Tieulent,A. Jemal. Global cancer statistics, 2012. CA A Cancer J Clin, 65 (2) ( 2015), pp. 87-108, DOI: 10.3322/caac.21262

[[31]] J.B. Wang, Y. Jiang, W.Q. Wei, et al.. Estimation of cancer incidence and mortality attributable to smoking in China. Cancer Causes Control, 21 (6) ( 2010), pp. 959-965, DOI: 10.1007/s10552-010-9523-8

[[32]] W. Chen, R. Zheng, P.D. Baade, et al.. Cancer statistics in China, 2015. CA A Cancer J Clin, 66 (2) ( 2016), pp. 115-132, DOI: 10.3322/caac.21338

[[33]] M.F. Gregor, G.S. Hotamisligil. Inflammatory mechanisms in obesity. Annu Rev Immunol, 29 ( 2011), pp. 415-445, DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-031210-101322

[[34]] E.A. Finkelstein, O.A. Khavjou, H. Thompson, et al.. Obesity and severe obesity forecasts through 2030. Am J Prev Med, 42 (6) ( 2012), pp. 563-570, DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.10.026

[[35]] Y.C. Chooi, C. Ding, F. Magkos. The epidemiology of obesity. Metabolism, 92 ( 2019), pp. 6-10, DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2018.09.005

[[36]] T.T. Huang.Watching China's weight. Obesity (Silver Spring), 24 (7) ( 2016), p. 1407, DOI: 10.1002/oby.21545

[[37]] H. Wang, H. Xue, S. Du, et al.. Time trends and factors in body mass index and obesity among children in China: 1997-2011. Int J Obes (Lond), 41 (6) ( 2017), pp. 964-970, DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2017.53

[[38]] U. Shrivastava, A. Misra, V. Mohan, et al.. Obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases in India: public health challenges. Curr Diabetes Rev, 13 (1) ( 2017), pp. 65-80, DOI: 10.2174/1573399812666160805153328

[[39]] J.C. Seidell, J. Halberstadt. The global burden of obesity and the challenges of prevention. Ann Nutr Metab, 66 (Suppl 2) ( 2015), pp. 7-12, DOI: 10.1159/000375143

[[40]] J. Font-Burgada, B. Sun, M. Karin. Obesity and cancer: the oil that feeds the flame. Cell Metabol, 23 (1) ( 2016), pp. 48-62, DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2015.12.015

[[41]] F.B. Ortega, C.J. Lavie, S.N. Blair. Obesity and cardiovascular disease. Circ Res, 118 (11) ( 2016), pp. 1752-1770, DOI: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306883

[[42]] S.E. Kahn, R.L. Hull, K.M. Utzschneider.Mechanisms linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Nature, 444 (7121) ( 2006), pp. 840-846, DOI: 10.1038/nature05482

[[43]] D. Ding, K.D. Lawson, T.L. Kolbe-Alexander, et al.. The economic burden of physical inactivity: a global analysis of major non-communicable diseases. Lancet, 388 (10051) ( 2016), pp. 1311-1324, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30383-X

[[44]] M. Zwieten, E. Vromme, M. Mol, et al.. National Working Conditions Survey 2013. Methodology and Global Results. ( 2014)

[[45]] E. Besen, A. Jetha, B. Gaines. Examining the likelihood of experiencing productivity loss and receiving social security disability income following the onset of chronic disease. J Occup Environ Med, 60 (1) ( 2018), pp. 48-54, DOI: 10.1097/JOM.0000000000001159

[[46]] T.S. Denis.Future soldiers: “the few...” military personnel trends in the developed world. CMJ, 15 (4) ( 2015), pp. 12-21

[[47]] E.M. Aucejo, T. Romano. Assessing the effect of school days and absences on test score performance. Econ Educ Rev, 55 ( 2016), pp. 70-87, DOI: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.08.007

[[48]] S.L. Michael, C.L. Merlo, C.E. Basch, et al.. Critical connections: health and academics. J Sch Health, 85 (11) ( 2015), pp. 740-758, DOI: 10.1111/josh.12309

[[49]] J.E. Rosenbaum. Disabilities and degrees: identifying health impairments that predict lower chances of college enrollment and graduation in a nationally representative sample. Community Coll Rev, 46 (2) ( 2018), pp. 145-175, DOI: 10.1177/0091552118762630

[[50]] A.C. Foster, W.R. Hawk.Spending Patterns of Families Receiving Means-Tested Government Assistance. Beyond the Numbers: Prices and Spending, vol 2, US Bureau of Labor Statistics) ( 2013). (26)

[[51]] D.S. Hillygus. The missing link: exploring the relationship between higher education and political engagement. Political Behav, 27 (1) ( 2005), pp. 25-47, DOI: 10.1007/s11109-005-3075-8

[[52]] P.A. Trostel. It's Not Just the Money. The Benefits of College Education to Individuals and to Society ( 2015)

[[53]] M. Ng, T. Fleming, M. Robinson, et al.. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet, 384 (9945) ( 2014), pp. 766-781, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60460-8

[[54]] C.L. Ogden, K.M. Flegal, M.D. Carroll, et al.. Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000. J Am Med Assoc, 288 (14) ( 2002), pp. 1728-1732, DOI: 10.1001/jama.288.14.1728

[[55]] E.J. Benjamin, S.S. Virani, C.W. Callaway, et al.. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2018 update: a report from the American heart association. Circulation, 137 (12) ( 2018), pp. e67-e492, DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000558

[[56]] C.M. Hales, C.D. Fryar, M.D. Carroll, et al.. Trends in obesity and severe obesity prevalence in US youth and adults by sex and age, 2007-2008 to 2015-2016. J Am Med Assoc, 319 (16) ( 2018), pp. 1723-1725, DOI: 10.1001/jama.2018.3060

[[57]] J.C. Lo, M. Chandra, A. Sinaiko, et al.. Severe obesity in children: prevalence, persistence and relation to hypertension. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol, 2014 (1) ( 2014), p. 3, DOI: 10.1186/1687-9856-2014-3

[[58]] A.C. de Moraes, M.B. Lacerda, L.A. Moreno, et al.. Prevalence of high blood pressure in 122,053 adolescents: a systematic review and meta-regression. Medicine (Baltim), 93 (27) ( 2014), p. e232, DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000000232

[[59]] S. Vale, S.G. Trost, C. Rego, et al.. Physical activity, obesity status, and blood pressure in preschool children. J Pediatr, 167 (1) ( 2015), pp. 98-102, DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.04.031

[[60]] E.J. Benjamin, M.J. Blaha, S.E. Chiuve, et al.. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2017 update: a report from the American heart association. Circulation, 135 (10) ( 2017), pp. e146-e603, DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000485

[[61]] S. Poyrazoglu, F. Bas, F. Darendeliler. Metabolic syndrome in young people. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes, 21 (1) ( 2014), pp. 56-63, DOI: 10.1097/01.med.0000436414.90240.2c

[[62]] S.N. Magge, E. Goodman, S.C. Armstrong, et al.. The metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents: shifting the focus to cardiometabolic risk factor clustering. Pediatrics, 140 (2) ( 2017), DOI: 10.1542/peds.2017-1603

[[63]] A. Abbasi, D. Juszczyk, C.H.M. van Jaarsveld, M.C. Gulliford. Body mass index and incident type 1 and type 2 diabetes in children and young adults: a retrospective cohort study. J Endocr Soc, 1 (5) ( 2017), pp. 524-537, DOI: 10.1210/js.2017-00044

[[64]] S.N. Bhupathiraju, F.B. Hu. Epidemiology of obesity and diabetes and their cardiovascular complications. Circ Res, 118 (11) ( 2016), pp. 1723-1735, DOI: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306825

[[65]] E.J. Mayer-Davis, J.M. Lawrence, D. Dabelea, et al.. Incidence trends of type 1 and type 2 diabetes among youths, 2002-2012. N Engl J Med, 376 (15) ( 2017), pp. 1419-1429, DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1610187

[[66]] Today Study Group, P. Zeitler K. Hirst, et al.. A clinical trial to maintain glycemic control in youth with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med, 366 (24) ( 2012), pp. 2247-2256, DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1109333

[[67]] R.C. Ma, X. Lin, W. Jia. Causes of type 2 diabetes in China. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 2 (12) ( 2014), pp. 980-991, DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587(14)70145-7

[[68]] E. Ward, C. DeSantis, A. Robbins, et al.. Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA A Cancer J Clin, 64 (2) ( 2014), pp. 83-103, DOI: 10.3322/caac.21219

[[69]] T. Ghosh, M. Richardson, J. Ryder, et al.. Obesity as a risk factor for pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. Paper Presented at: AACR Annual Meeting ( 2019), DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.AM2019-3118. Atlanta, GA

[[70]] P.C. Rogers, L.R. Meacham, K.C. Oeffinger, et al.. Obesity in pediatric oncology. Pediatr Blood Cancer, 45 (7) ( 2005), pp. 881-891, DOI: 10.1002/pbc.20451

[[71]] A.M. Saenz, S. Stapleton, R.G. Hernandez, et al.. Body mass index at pediatric leukemia diagnosis and the risks of relapse and mortality: findings from a single institution and meta-analysis. J Obes, 2018 ( 2018), p. 7048078, DOI: 10.1155/2018/7048078

[[72]] B. Riegel, D.K. Moser, H.G. Buck, et al.. Self-care for the prevention and management of cardiovascular disease and stroke: a scientific statement for healthcare professionals from the American heart association. J Am Heart Assoc, 6 (9) ( 2017), DOI: 10.1161/JAHA.117.006997

[[73]] A. Kesaniemi, C.J. Riddoch, B. Reeder, et al.. Advancing the future of physical activity guidelines in Canada: an independent expert panel interpretation of the evidence. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 7 ( 2010), p. 41, DOI: 10.1186/1479-5868-7-41

[[74]] S. Mendis, T. Armstrong, D. Bettcher, et al.. Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2014. World Health Organization ( 2014)

[[75]] C.A. Brawner, J.R. Churilla, S.J. Keteyian. Prevalence of physical activity is lower among individuals with chronic disease. Med Sci Sport Exerc, 48 (6) ( 2016), pp. 1062-1067, DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000861

[[76]] R.R. Pate, M. Pratt, S.N. Blair, et al.. Physical activity and public health. A recommendation from the centers for disease control and prevention and the American college of Sports medicine. J Am Med Assoc, 273 (5) ( 1995), pp. 402-407, DOI: 10.1001/jama.273.5.402

[[77]] A.C. King, J.F. Sallis. Why and how to improve physical activity promotion: lessons from behavioral science and related fields. Prev Med, 49 (4) ( 2009), pp. 286-288, DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.07.007

[[78]] R. Guthold, G.A. Stevens, L.M. Riley, et al.. Worldwide trends in insufficient physical activity from 2001 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 358 population-based surveys with 1.9 million participants. Lancet Glob Health, 6 (10) ( 2018), pp. e1077-e1086, DOI: 10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30357-7

[[79]] C. Bouchard, S.N. Blair, P.T. Katzmarzyk. Less sitting, more physical activity, or higher fitness?. Mayo Clin Proc, 90 (11) ( 2015), pp. 1533-1540, DOI: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.08.005

[[80]] K. Gonzalez, J. Fuentes, J.L. Marquez. Physical inactivity, sedentary behavior and chronic diseases. Korean J Fam Med, 38 (3) ( 2017), pp. 111-115, DOI: 10.4082/kjfm.2017.38.3.111

[[81]] World Health Organization. Physical activity and adults.

[[82]] World Health Organization. Global recommendations on physical activity for health.

[[83]] L.D. Delfino, D.A. Dos Santos Silva, W.R. Tebar, et al.. Screen time by different devices in adolescents: association with physical inactivity domains and eating habits. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 58 (3) ( 2018), pp. 318-325, DOI: 10.23736/S0022-4707.17.06980-8

[[84]] H. Spittaels, E. Van Cauwenberghe, V. Verbestel, et al.. Objectively measured sedentary time and physical activity time across the lifespan: a cross-sectional study in four age groups. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 9 ( 2012), p. 149, DOI: 10.1186/1479-5868-9-149

[[85]] J.L. Durstine, P. Painter, B.A. Franklin, et al.. Physical activity for the chronically ill and disabled. Sport Med, 30 (3) ( 2000), pp. 207-219, DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200030030-00005

[[86]] T. Bullard, M. Ji, R. An, et al.. A systematic review and meta-analysis of adherence to physical activity interventions among three chronic conditions: cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. BMC Public Health, 19 (1) ( 2019), p. 636, DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-6877-z

[[87]] P.D. Neufer, M.M. Bamman, D.M. Muoio, et al.. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of physical activity-induced health benefits. Cell Metabol, 22 (1) ( 2015), pp. 4-11, DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2015.05.011

[[88]] P. Farinatti, W. Monteiro, R. Oliveira, et al.. Cardiorespiratory responses and myocardial function within incremental exercise in healthy unmedicated older vs. young men and women. Aging Clin Exp Res, 30 (4) ( 2018), pp. 341-349, DOI: 10.1007/s40520-017-0776-x

[[89]] G.E. Billman. Aerobic exercise conditioning: a nonpharmacological antiarrhythmic intervention. J Appl Physiol, 92 (2) ( 1985), pp. 446-454, DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00874.2001. 2002

[[90]] M. Halle, M.H. Schoenberg. Physical activity in the prevention and treatment of colorectal carcinoma. Dtsch Arztebl Int, 106 (44) ( 2009), pp. 722-727

[[91]] D.T. Beck, J.S. Martin, D.P. Casey, et al.. Exercise training reduces peripheral arterial stiffness and myocardial oxygen demand in young prehypertensive subjects. Am J Hypertens, 26 (9) ( 2013), pp. 1093-1102, DOI: 10.1093/ajh/hpt080

[[92]] D. Nunan, K.R. Mahtani, N. Roberts, et al.. Physical activity for the prevention and treatment of major chronic disease: an overview of systematic reviews. Syst Rev, 2 ( 2013), p. 56, DOI: 10.1186/2046-4053-2-56

[[93]] L. Silvestri.Benefits of physical activity. Percept Mot Skills, 84 (3 Pt 1) ( 1997), p. 890, DOI: 10.2466/pms.1997.84.3.890

[[94]] G.N. Ruegsegger, F.W. Booth. Health benefits of exercise. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med, 8 (7) ( 2018), DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a029694

[[95]] W.L. Haskell. J.B. Wolffe Memorial Lecture. Health consequences of physical activity: understanding and challenges regarding dose-response. Med Sci Sport Exerc, 26 (6) ( 1994), pp. 649-660

[[96]] H.B. Simon. Exercise and health: dose and response, considering both ends of the curve. Am J Med, 128 (11) ( 2015), pp. 1171-1177, DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.05.012

[[97]] R.S. Paffenbarger Jr., R. T. Hyde, A.L. Wing, et al.. Physical activity, all-cause mortality, and longevity of college alumni. N Engl J Med, 314 (10) ( 1986), pp. 605-613, DOI: 10.1056/NEJM198603063141003

[[98]] S.N. Blair, H.W. Kohl 3rd, R.S. Paffenbarger Jr., et al.. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy men and women. J Am Med Assoc, 262 (17) ( 1989), pp. 2395-2401, DOI: 10.1001/jama.262.17.2395

[[99]] D.E.R. Warburton, S.S.D. Bredin. Health benefits of physical activity: a systematic review of current systematic reviews. Curr Opin Cardiol, 32 (5) ( 2017), pp. 541-556, DOI: 10.1097/HCO.0000000000000437

[[100]] X. Sui, M.J. LaMonte, S.N. Blair. Cardiorespiratory fitness as a predictor of nonfatal cardiovascular events in asymptomatic women and men. Am J Epidemiol, 165 (12) ( 2007), pp. 1413-1423, DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwm031

[[101]] L.M. Buffart, J. Kalter, M.G. Sweegers, et al.. Effects and moderators of exercise on quality of life and physical function in patients with cancer: an individual patient data meta-analysis of 34 RCTs. Cancer Treat Rev, 52 ( 2017), pp. 91-104, DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2016.11.010

[[102]] L.C. Baptista, A.M. Machado-Rodrigues, R.A. Martins.Exercise but not metformin improves health-related quality of life and mood states in older adults with type 2 diabetes. Eur J Sport Sci, 17 (6) ( 2017), pp. 794-804, DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2017.1310933

[[103]] V.A. Sagar, E.J. Davies, S. Briscoe, et al.. Exercise-based rehabilitation for heart failure: systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Heart, 2 (1) ( 2015), Article e000163, DOI: 10.1136/openhrt-2014-000163

[[104]] J.L. Durstine, B. Gordon, Z. Wang, et al.. Chronic disease and the link to physical activity. J Sport Health Sci, 2 (1) ( 2013), pp. 3-11, DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2012.07.009

[[105]] R. Powell, G. McGregor, S. Ennis, et al.. Is exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation effective? A systematic review and meta-analysis to re-examine the evidence. BMJ Open, 8 (3) ( 2018), Article e019656, DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019656

[[106]] A.S. Leon, B.A. Franklin, F. Costa, et al.. Cardiac rehabilitation and secondary prevention of coronary heart disease: an American heart association scientific statement from the council on clinical cardiology (subcommittee on exercise, cardiac rehabilitation, and prevention) and the council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism (subcommittee on physical activity), in collaboration with the American association of cardiovascular and pulmonary rehabilitation. Circulation, 111 (3) ( 2005), pp. 369-376, DOI: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000151788.08740.5C

[[107]] J.P. Kirwan, J. Sacks, S. Nieuwoudt.The essential role of exercise in the management of type 2 diabetes. Clevel Clin J Med, 84 (7 Suppl 1) ( 2017), pp. S15-S21, DOI: 10.3949/ccjm.84.s1.03

[[108]] D. Aune, T. Norat, M. Leitzmann, et al.. Physical activity and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol, 30 (7) ( 2015), pp. 529-542, DOI: 10.1007/s10654-015-0056-z

[[109]] W.D. Dudgeon, K.D. Phillips, C.M. Bopp, et al.. Physiological and psychological effects of exercise interventions in HIV disease. AIDS Patient Care STDS, 18 (2) ( 2004), pp. 81-98, DOI: 10.1089/108729104322802515

[[110]] J. Xu, G. Lombardi, W. Jiao, et al.. Effects of exercise on bone status in female subjects, from young girls to postmenopausal women: an overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Sport Med, 46 (8) ( 2016), pp. 1165-1182, DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0494-0

[[111]] R.M. Daly. Exercise and nutritional approaches to prevent frail bones, falls and fractures: an update. Climacteric, 20 (2) ( 2017), pp. 119-124, DOI: 10.1080/13697137.2017.1286890

[[112]] R.J. Simpson, H. Kunz, N. Agha, et al.. Exercise and the regulation of immune functions. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci, 135 ( 2015), pp. 355-380, DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.08.001

[[113]] G.E. Hespe, R.P. Kataru, I.L. Savetsky, et al.. Exercise training improves obesity-related lymphatic dysfunction. J Physiol, 594 (15) ( 2016), pp. 4267-4282, DOI: 10.1113/JP271757

[[114]] T.J. Chambers, R.A. Richard. The impact of obesity on male fertility. Hormones (Basel), 14 (4) ( 2015), pp. 563-568, DOI: 10.14310/horm.2002.1621

[[115]] D. Best, A. Avenell, S. Bhattacharya. How effective are weight-loss interventions for improving fertility in women and men who are overweight or obese? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the evidence. Hum Reprod Update, 23 (6) ( 2017), pp. 681-705, DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmx027

[[116]] R. Barakat, M. Perales, M. Bacchi, et al.. A program of exercise throughout pregnancy. Is it safe to mother and newborn?. Am J Health Promot, 29 (1) ( 2014), pp. 2-8, DOI: 10.4278/ajhp.130131-QUAN-56

[[117]] G.A.L. Davies, L.A. Wolfe, M.F. Mottola, et al.. No. 129-Exercise in pregnancy and the postpartum period. J Obstet Gynaecol Can, 40 (2) ( 2018), pp. e58-e65, DOI: 10.1016/j. jogc.2017.11.001

[[118]] E. Labonte-Lemoyne, D. Curnier, D. Ellemberg. Exercise during pregnancy enhances cerebral maturation in the newborn: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 39 (4) ( 2017), pp. 347-354, DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2016.1227427

[[119]] M. Perales, I. Calabria, C. Lopez, et al.. Regular exercise throughout pregnancy is associated with a shorter first stage of labor. Am J Health Promot, 30 (3) ( 2016), pp. 149-154, DOI: 10.4278/ajhp.140221-QUAN-79

[[120]] H.W. Wiebe, N.G. Boule, R. Chari, et al.. The effect of supervised prenatal exercise on fetal growth: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol, 125 (5) ( 2015), pp. 1185-1194, DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000000801

[[121]] J.A. Morgan, F. Corrigan, B.T. Baune.Effects of physical exercise on central nervous system functions: a review of brain region specific adaptations. J Mol Psychiatry, 3 (1) ( 2015), p. 3, DOI: 10.1186/s40303-015-0010-8

[[122]] T. Paillard, Y. Rolland, P. de Souto Barreto. Protective effects of physical exercise in alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease: a narrative review. J Clin Neurol, 11 (3) ( 2015), pp. 212-219, DOI: 10.3988/jcn.2015.11.3.212

[[123]] K. Hotting, B. Roder. Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 37 (9 Pt B) ( 2013), pp. 2243-2257, DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.005

[[124]] J.M. Northey, N. Cherbuin, K.L. Pumpa, et al.. Exercise interventions for cognitive function in adults older than 50: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med, 52 (3) ( 2018), pp. 154-160, DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096587

[[125]] E.G.A. Karssemeijer, J.A. Aaronson, W.J. Bossers, et al.. Positive effects of combined cognitive and physical exercise training on cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: a meta-analysis. Ageing Res Rev, 40 ( 2017), pp. 75-83, DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2017.09.003

[[126]] C. Samieri, M.C. Perier, B. Gaye, et al.. Association of cardiovascular health level in older age with cognitive decline and incident dementia. J Am Med Assoc, 320 (7) ( 2018), pp. 657-664, DOI: 10.1001/jama.2018.11499

[[127]] H. Bland, B. Melton, L. Bigham, et al.. Quantifying the impact of physical activity on stress tolerance in college students. Coll Stud J, 48 (4) ( 2014), pp. 559-568

[[128]] F.S. Dhabhar. Effects of stress on immune function: the good, the bad, and the beautiful. Immunol Res, 58 (2-3) ( 2014), pp. 193-210, DOI: 10.1007/s12026-014-8517-0

[[129]] A.L. Rebar, R. Stanton, D. Geard, et al.. A meta-meta-analysis of the effect of physical activity on depression and anxiety in non-clinical adult populations. Health Psychol Rev, 9 (3) ( 2015), pp. 366-378, DOI: 10.1080/17437199.2015.1022901

[[130]] K. Mikkelsen, L. Stojanovska, M. Polenakovic, et al.. Exercise and mental health. Maturitas, 106 ( 2017), pp. 48-56, DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.09.003