Advancements in Sustainable Prestressed Concrete Bridge Technologies: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Advancements in prestressed concrete bridge technology have increasingly focused on sustainability in response to growing environmental concerns. This review examines recent innovations in integrating recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) within prestressed concrete to conserve resources, reduce waste, and lower carbon emissions. Sustainable prestressing techniques, including the use of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) tendons and shape memory alloys (SMAs), increase the durability of prestressed concrete bridges, extend service life, and minimize maintenance needs, thereby reducing environmental impact. Key methodologies, such as lifecycle assessment (LCA) and performance-based design, are highlighted for their roles in optimizing structural performance while reducing the ecological footprint. Despite the benefits, barriers to widespread adoption remain, including technical limitations, economic challenges, and regulatory constraints. To address these issues, this review proposes further research on material development, updated design guidelines, cost-benefit analyses, and supportive policy initiatives. The findings confirm that integrating sustainable materials and advanced technologies in prestressed concrete bridge construction offers environmental advantages without compromising structural integrity. Collaborative efforts among engineers, researchers, policy-makers, and educators are essential to overcoming these barriers and advancing sustainable, resilient infrastructure.

Keywords

sustainable prestressed concrete / recycled concrete aggregates / supplementary cementitious material / fiber-reinforced / lifecycle assessment / environmental impact / structural durability

References

[1] Tam, V.W.Y.; Soomro, M.; Evangelista, A.C.J. A review of recycled aggregate in concrete applications (2000-2017). Constr Build Mater 2018, 172,272-292, doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.240.

[2] Juenger, M.C.G.; Snellings, R.; Bernal, S.A. Supplementary cementitious materials: New sources, characterization, and performance insights. Cement Concrete Res 2019, 122,257-273, doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.05.008.

[3] Ibarreche, J.; Aquino, R.; Edwards, R.M.; Rangel, V.; Pérez, I.; Martínez, M.; Castellanos, E.; Alvarez, E.; Jimenez, S.; Rentería, R.; et al. Flash Flood Early Warning System in Colima, Mexico. Sensors-Basel 2020, 20,doi:10.3390/s20185231.

[4] Li, H.W.; Liu, F.; Pan, Z.Z.; Li, H.M.; Wu, Z.C.; Li, L.J.; Xiong, Z. Use of supplementary cementitious materials in seawater-sea sand concrete: State-of-the-art review. Constr Build Mater 2024, 425,doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136009.

[5] Yeo, S.J.; Kim, J.; Lee, W.J. Potential economic and environmental advantages of liquid petroleum gas as a marine fuel through analysis of registered ships in South Korea. J Clean Prod 2022, 330,doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129955.

[6] Liu, H.K.; Li, J.; Zhang, J.F.; Pang, D.Y. Decision Analysis of a Reinforcement Scheme for In-Service Prestressed Concrete Box Girder Bridges Based on AHP and Evaluation of the Reinforcement Effect. Buildings-Basel 2022, 12,doi:10.3390/buildings12101771.

[7] Bagge, N.; Plos, M.; Popescu, C. A multi-level strategy for successively improved structural analysis of existing concrete bridges: examination using a prestressed concrete bridge tested to failure. Struct Infrastruct E 2019, 15,27-53, doi:10.1080/15732479.2018.1476562.

[8] Dawood, M.B.; Taher, H.M.A.M. Various methods for retrofitting prestressed concrete members: A critical review. Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Babylon, Babylon, Iraq 2021, 9,657-666, doi:10.21533/pen.v9i2.1849.

[9] Ferreira, M.D.; dos Santos, K.D.; Pereira, M.J.M.; Cordeiro, L.D.P. Effect of Recycled Concrete Aggregates on the Concrete Breakout Resistance of Headed Bars Embedded in Slender Structural Elements. Buildings-Basel 2024, 14,doi:10.3390/buildings14072102.

[10] Schoen, S.; Edler, P.; Meschke, G. Durability analysis and optimization of a prestressed concrete bridge strengthened by a fiber reinforced concrete layer. In Life-Cycle of Structures and Infrastructure Systems; CRC Press:2023.

[11] Hollaway, L.; Leeming, M.B. Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures : Using externally-bonded FRP composites in structural and civil engineering; Elsevier: 1999.

[12] Santarsiero, G.; Picciano, V. Durability enhancement of half-joints in RC bridges through external prestressed tendons: The Musmeci Bridge?s case study. Case Stud Constr Mat 2023, 18,doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01813.

[13] Komarizadehasl, S.; Khanmohammadi, M. Novel plastic hinge modification factors for damaged RC shear walls with bending performance. Adv Concr Constr 2021, 12,355-365, doi:10.12989/acc.2021.12.4.355.

[14] Brühwiler, E. UHPFRC technology to enhance the performance of existing concrete bridges. Struct Infrastruct E 2020, 16,94-105, doi:10.1080/15732479.2019.1605395.

[15] Zdanowicz, K.; Kotynia, R.; Marx, S. Prestressing concrete members with fibre-reinforced polymer reinforcement: State of research. Struct Concrete 2019, 20,872-885, doi:10.1002/suco.201800347.

[16] Monteiro, N.B.R.; Neto, J.M.M.; da Silva, E.A. Environmental assessment in concrete industries. J Clean Prod 2021, 327,doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129516.

[17] Komarizadehasl, S.; Xia, Y.; Komary, M.; Lozano, F. Eigenfrequency analysis of bridges using a smartphone and a novel low-cost accelerometer prototype. Front Struct Civ Eng 2024, 18,202-215, doi:10.1007/s11709-024-1055-5.

[18] Ranjetha, K.; Alengaram, U.J.; Alnahhal, A.M.; Karthick, S.; Zurina, W.J.W.; Rao, K.J. Towards sustainable construction through the application of low carbon footprint products. Mater Today-Proc 2022, 52,873-881, doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2021.10.275.

[19] Müller, H.S.; Haist, M.; Vogel, M. Assessment of the sustainability potential of concrete and concrete structures considering their environmental impact, performance and lifetime. Constr Build Mater 2014, 67,321-337, doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.01.039.

[20] Rasheed, R.; Javed, H.; Rizwan, A.; Afzaal, M.; Ahmad, S.R. Eco-sustainability analysis of precast-concrete utility poles manufacturing-A case study from Pakistan. Heliyon 2023, 9,doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14976.

[21] Muigai, R.N. A Framework Towards the Design of More Sustainable Concrete Structures. University of Cape Town, 2014.

[22] Hossain, M.U.; Cai, R.J.; Ng, S.T.; Xuan, D.X.; Ye, H.L. Sustainable natural pozzolana concrete - A comparative study on its environmental performance against concretes with other industrial by-products. Constr Build Mater 2021, 270,doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121429.

[23] Sua-Iam, G.; Makul, N. Potential Future Direction of The Sustainable Production of Precast Concrete with Recycled Concrete Aggregate: A Critical Review. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon (RMUTP), 1381 Pracharat Sai 1 Road, Wong Sawang, Bang Sue, Bangkok, 10800, Thailand;Department of Civil Engineering Technology, 2024, 28, doi:10.30919/es1075.

[24] Joseph, P.; Tretsiakova-McNally, S. Sustainable Non-Metallic Building Materials. Paul Joseph (The Built Environment Research Institute, School of the Built Environment, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, BT37 0QB, Northern Ireland, UK) Svetlana Tretsiakova-McNally (The Built Environment Research Institute Scho, 2010, 2,1-28, doi:10.3390/su2020400.

[25] Komarizadehasl, S.; Jiménez, M.A.G.; Casas, J.M.P.; Lozano-Galant, J.A.; Turmo, J. Eigenfrequency analysis using fiber optic sensors and low-cost accelerometers for structural damage detection. Eng Struct 2024, 318,doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2024.118684.

[26] Xu, D. Research and Application of Externally Prestressed Bridges. Prestress Technology 1999, 13-18, doi:10.59238/j.pt.1999.04.005.

[27] Kangle, C.; Di, Y.; Sihang, W. Research on the Application of Circumferential Prestressing Technology in Precast Concrete Wind Turbine Tower Structures. Prestress Technology 2024, 2,20-33, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2024.03.003.

[28] Wang, Z.; Wen, C.; Jiang, Y. Application of Prestressing Technology in Ultra-large LNG Storage Tanks at the ‘Green Energy Port’ Project in Yancheng, Jiangsu Province. Prestress Technology 2024, 2,57-70, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2024.03.006.

[29] Wei, Y. Introduction to the 180-Meter UHPC Mixed Tower Structure Wind Power Project in Lianshui, Jiangsu. Prestress Technology 2024, 2,81-85, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2024.03.007.

[30] Fuhai, J.; Jian, F. Downward Through-pass Cable-Stayed-Arch Composite Structural System Bridge: Yanluo Pedestrian Bridge in Shenzhen. Prestress Technology 2024, 2,71-81, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2024.01.006.

[31] McNeil, K.; Kang, T.H.-K. Recycled Concrete Aggregates: A Review. 1.School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science,University of Oklahoma,Norman,USA;2.Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering,Seoul National University,Seoul,Korea 2013, 7,61-69, doi:10.1007/s40069-013-0032-5.

[32] Mcginnis, M.J.; Gangone, M.V.; Nogales, A.; Gomez-Santana, L.M.; Weldon, B.; Reihl, A.; Tosic, N.; Kurama, Y. Experimental and numerical investigation of the bending, shear, and punching shear behavior of recycled aggregate concrete precast/prestressed hollow core slabs. Struct Concrete 2024, doi:10.1002/suco.202400008.

[33] Brandes, M.R.; Kurama, Y.C. Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregates in Precast/Prestressed Concrete. Procedia Engineer 2016, 145,1338-1345, doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.04.172.

[34] Liang, C.F.; Pan, B.H.; Ma, Z.M.; He, Z.H.; Duan, Z.H. Utilization of CO2 curing to enhance the properties of recycled aggregate and prepared concrete: A review. Cement Concrete Comp 2020, 105,doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.103446.

[35] Sierens, Z. The use of high-quality recycled concrete aggregates in precast non-prestressed and prestressed concrete. KU Leuven, 2021.

[36] Kumar, A.; Singh, G.J.; Kumar, S.B.; Kumar, R. Performance-Based Quality Optimization Approach for Mechanically Treated Recycled Concrete Aggregates. J Mater Civil Eng 2023, 35,doi:10.1061/Jmcee7.Mteng-15284.

[37] Zhao, H.; Wang, Y.Y.; Liu, F.Q. Stress-strain relationship of coarse RCA concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. Mag Concrete Res 2017, 69,649-664, doi:10.1680/jmacr.16.00333.

[38] Dawood, M.H.; Al-Asadi, A.K. Mechanical properties and flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams containing recycled concrete aggregate. Scientific Review Engineering and Environmental Sciences (SREES) 2023, 31,259-269, doi:10.22630/srees.4250.

[39] Zhang, Y.R.; Luo, W.; Wang, J.J.; Wang, Y.F.; Xu, Y.Q.; Xiao, J.Z. A review of life cycle assessment of recycled aggregate concrete. Constr Build Mater 2019, 209,115-125, doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.078.

[40] Nikolic, J.; Tosic, N.; Murcia-Delso, J.; Kostic, S.M. Comprehensive review of the structural behaviour and numerical modelling of recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tubes. Eng Struct 2024, 303,doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2024.117514.

[41] Thomas, M. Supplementary Cementing Materials in Concrete; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2013.

[42] Degefa, A.B.; Jeon, G.; Choi, S.; Bak, J.; Park, S.; Yoon, H.; Park, S. Data-Driven Insights into Controlling the Reactivity of Supplementary Cementitious Materials in Hydrated Cement. 1.School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science,University of Oklahoma,Norman,USA;2.Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering,Seoul National University,Seoul,Korea 2024, 18,doi:10.1186/s40069-024-00677-w.

[43] Mehta, P.K.; Monteiro, P.J.M. Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials, 4th Edition ed.ed.; McGraw-Hill Education: New York, 2014.

[44] Andharia, B.R.; Dhar, S.; Thakkar, S.; Dave, U.; Patel, K. Sustainable high volume fly ash concrete with recycled C&D waste and dredged marine sand. Materials Today Proceedings 2023, doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2023.04.313.

[45] Aghajanzadeh, I.; Ramezanianpour, A.M.; Amani, A.; Habibi, A. Mixture optimization of alkali activated slag concrete containing recycled concrete aggregates and silica fume using response surface method. Constr Build Mater 2024, 425,doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135928.

[46] International Organization for Standardization. ISO 21930:2017 Sustainability in buildings and civil engineering works - Core rules for environmental product declarations of construction products and services (Second Edition). 2017.

[47] Zhang, J.Y.; Chen, T.F.; Gao, X.J. Incorporation of self-ignited coal gangue in steam cured precast concrete. J Clean Prod 2021, 292,doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126004.

[48] Aidarov, S.; Nogales, A.; Tosic, N.; de la Fuente, A. Influence of fiber orientation on flexural-based design of steel fiber-reinforced concrete slabs: Experimental and numerical program. Struct Concrete 2024, 25,956-972, doi:10.1002/suco.202300754.

[49] Burke, C.R.; Dolan, C.W. Flexural design of prestressed concrete beams using FRP tendons. Pci J 2001, 46,76-87, doi:10.15554/pcij.03012001.76.87.

[50] Li, X.R.; Gao, M.Q.; Ma, H.; Yang, L.; Guan, R.G. Microstructure and strength-conductivity synergy of Al-Mg-Si-Cu alloy sheets prepared via vacuum melting and thermo-mechanical treatment. J Alloy Compd 2024, 1010,doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.177184.

[51] Vázquez-Calle, K.; Guillén-Mena, V.; Quesada-Molina, F. Analysis of the Embodied Energy and CO2 Emissions of Ready-Mixed Concrete: A Case Study in Cuenca, Ecuador. Materials 2022, 15,doi:10.3390/ma15144896.

[52] Mesquita, E.; Antunes, P.; Henriques, A.A.; Arêde, A.; André P.S.; Varum, H. Structural reliability assessment based on optical monitoring system: case study X1 - Avaliação da fiabilidade estrutural baseado em sistema ótico de monitorização: caso de estudo. Revista IBRACON de Estruturas e Materiais 2016, 9,297-305, doi:10.1590/S1983-41952016000200009.

[53] Abdulkareem, Z.; Oukaili, N.; Al-Mahaidi, R. Shear capacity investigation of RC concrete beams using self-prestressing Fe-based shape memory alloys strips. Results Eng 2023, 18,doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101204.

[54] Jeong, S.; Kim, K.H.E.; Choi, H.; Ahn, J.; Jung, D. Comparative evaluation of flexural response and damage assessment of concrete columns confined with CFRP and self-prestressing iron-based SMA. J Build Eng 2024, 82,doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2023.108228.

[55] Fuyuan, L.; Tingjia, Y. Development of intelligent bridge in China. Prestress Technology 2017, 12-15, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2017.05.003.

[56] Qu, X.; Pang, Z.; Wang, H.; Zhou, L. Optimization and application of prestressed carbon fiber board reinforcement support. Prestress Technology 2016, 35-38, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2016.03.007.

[57] Houzheng, H. Research and Outlook on the Application of Information Technology in Smart Bridges. Prestress Technology 2017, 3-6,11, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2017.04.001.

[58] Office, P.T.E. A Pioneer in Modern Prestressed Concrete Technology: Eugène Freyssinet. Prestress Technology 2023, 1,93-98, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2023.01.009.

[59] Limin, S. Promoting Innovative Development and International Cooperation of Prestressed Technology. Prestress Technology 2023, 1,1-2, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2023.01.000.

[60] Hua, P.; Shuwei, Y. Anyang-Luoshan Expressway | Yellow River Bridge. Prestress Technology 2023, 1,82-88, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2023.03.007.

[61] Alkhairi, F.M.; Naaman, A.E. Analysis of Beams Prestressed with Unbonded Internal or External Tendons. T. Y. Lin, Int, Alexandria, VA, 22304, 4601-A Eisenhower Ave, United States;Dept. Of Civ. And Envir. Engrg, Univ. Of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, United States 1993, 119,2680-2700, doi:10.1061/(asce)0733-9445(1993)119:9(2680).

[62] Weiher, H.; Gläser, C.; Zilch, K. Examinations of tendons of post-tensioned and prestressed concrete bridges. Engineering, Materials Science 2007.

[63] Zhichao, W.; Fangyuan, L. Stage-by-Stage Prestressing Arrangement Design in the Design of Bridges with Hybrid Internal and External Prestressing Tendons. Prestress Technology 2023, 1,11-26, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2023.02.002.

[64] Li, P.; Mingbao, L. Calculation and analysis of toothed single hole opening anchorage for prestressing tendons of steel strand. Prestress Technology 2012, 3-16, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2012.03.001.

[65] Zhang, W.; Sheng, X.; Zhang, B.; Fu, Y.; Wang, Q.; Yang, K.; Tan, L.; Zhang, Q. A novel design magnesium alloy suture anchor promotes fibrocartilaginous enthesis regeneration in rabbit rotator cuff repair. School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Shenyang, 110016, China;Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, 110016, China;These authors contribut 2024, doi:10.1016/j.jma.2024.08.002.

[66] Zhang, H.X.; Shen, M.H.; Deng, Y.; Andras, P.; Sukontasukkul, P.; Yuen, T.Y.P.; Tang, Y.C.; Wong, S.H.F.; Limkatanyu, S.; Singleton, I.; et al. A new concept of bio-based prestress technology with experimental Proof-of-Concept on Bamboo-Timber composite beams. Constr Build Mater 2023, 402,doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132991.

[67] Pincheira, L.A.; Woyak, J.P. Anchorage of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) tendons using cold-swaged sleeves. Pci J 2001, 46,100-111.

[68] Michels, J.; Barros, J.; Costa, I.; Sena-Cruz, J.; Czaderski, C.; Giacomin, G.; Kotynia, R.; Lees, J.; Pellegrino, C.; Zile, E. Prestressed FRP Systems. In Design Procedures for the Use of Composites in Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures: State-of-the-Art Report of the RILEM Technical Committee 234-DUC, Pellegrino, C., Sena-Cruz, J., Eds.; Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht, 2016; pp. 263-301.

[69] Weixing, C.; Xiaoqing, L. Study on the Structural Performance of through Tied-arch Bridges with CFRP Suspenders. Prestress Technology 2023, 1,44-56, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2023.03.004.

[70] Liu, E.M.; Lin, M.Q.; Xie, Q.; Zhang, Y. Flexural Performance of Prestressed Composite Recycled Aggregate Slabs with Steel Tube Trusses. Ksce J Civ Eng 2022, 26,5253-5263, doi:10.1007/s12205-022-0563-x.

[71] Yu, F.; Wang, M.; Yao, D.L.; Liu, Y.F. Experimental research on flexural behavior of post-tensioned self-compacting concrete beams with recycled coarse aggregate. Constr Build Mater 2023, 377,doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131098.

[72] Pires-Junior, R.; Frizera, A.; Leal-Junior, A. Design of an optical fiber embedded smart artificial tendon for deformation monitoring. Federal University of Espírito Santo, Fernando Ferrari Avenue, Vitoria 29075-910, Brazil . 2023, 80, doi:10.1016/j.yofte.2023.103464.

[73] Heming, Z.; Bin, W. Construction Technology and Application of Bonded Pre-stressed Tendons in Wind Turbine Mixed Towers. Prestress Technology 2024, 2,70-80, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2024.02.006.

[74] Pingwei, L.; Wanxu, Z.; Hongmei, Z.; Rucheng, H. A new method for corrosion protection and monitoring of post-tensioned prestressed tendons. Prestress Technology 2011, 34-36, doi:10.59238/j.pt.2011.01.007.

[75] Thiru. Aravinthan; Hiroshi. Mutsuyoshi; Yoshihiro. Ultimate strength and plasticity of prestressed concrete beams with external tendons. Prestress Technology 1999, 25-25, doi:10.59238/j.pt.1999.04.008.

[76] Ishihara, A.; Ota, K.-I. Environmental Impact Factors Associated with Hydrogen Energy. In Fuel Cells and Hydrogen; Elsevier: 2018; pp. 257-269.

[77] CENELEC. CSN EN 15804+A2 Sustainability of construction works-Environmental product declarations-Core rules for the product category of construction products.

[78] Milic, I.; Bleiziffer, J. Life cycle assessment of the sustainability of bridges: methodology, literature review and knowledge gaps. Front Built Environ 2024, 10,doi:10.3389/fbuil.2024.1410798.

[79] Qureshi, L.A.; Ali, B.; Ali, A. Combined effects of supplementary cementitious materials (silica fume, GGBS, fly ash and rice husk ash) and steel fiber on the hardened properties of recycled aggregate concrete. Constr Build Mater 2020, 263,doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120636.

[80] Xing, W.Q.; Tam, V.W.Y.; Le, K.N.; Hao, J.L.; Wang, J. Life cycle assessment of sustainable concrete with recycled aggregate and supplementary cementitious materials. Resour Conserv Recy 2023, 193,doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.106947.

[81] Sun, J.N.; Kong, K.H.; Lye, C.Q.; Quek, S.T. Effect of ground granulated blast furnace slag on cement hydration and autogenous healing of concrete. Constr Build Mater 2022, 315,doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125365.

[82] Stark, A.; Classen, M.; Hegger, J. Bond behaviour of CFRP tendons in UHPFRC. Eng Struct 2019, 178,148-161, doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.10.002.

[83] Fabo, P.; Jaroševič A.; Chandoga, M. The smart tendons- -A new approach to prestressing. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of the Fib Symposium on Concrete Structures: The Challenge of Creativity, Avignon, France, 2004; pp. 26-28.

[84] Blok, R.R., Teuffel, PM Patrick. Bio-Based Composite Bridge - Lessons Learned. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2017, “Interfaces: architecture. engineering. science” Hamburg, Germany, 2017.

[85] Lozano, F.; Jurado, J.C.; Lozano-Galant, J.A.; de la Fuente, A.; Turmo, J. Integration of BIM and Value Model for Sustainability Assessment for application in bridge projects. Automat Constr 2023, 152,doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2023.104935.

[86] Qu, P.F.; Zhang, L.M. Uncertainty-based multi-objective optimization in twin tunnel design considering fluid-solid coupling. Reliab Eng Syst Safe 2025, 253,doi:10.1016/j.ress.2024.110575.

[87] Patil, S.S.; Deshannavar, U.B.; Gadekar-Shinde, S.N.; Gadagi, A.H.; Kadapure, S.A. Optimization studies on batch extraction of phenolic compounds from Azadirachta indica using genetic algorithm and machine learning techniques. Heliyon 2023, 9,doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21991.

[88] Hansen, E.Ø.; Iskau, M.R.; Hasholt, M.T. Chloride Ingress in Concrete with Different Age at Time of First Chloride Exposure. Hansen, Esben stergaard(Technical University of Denmark, Denmark) Iskau, Martin Riis (Technical University of Denmark, Denmark) Hasholt, Marianne TangeSection for Building Design, Department of Civil Engineering, Technical Unive 2016, 55.

[89] Andersson, R.; Stripple, H.; Gustafsson, T.; Ljungkrantz, C. Carbonation as a method to improve climate performance for cement based material. Cement Concrete Res 2019, 124,doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105819.

[90] Vu, K.K.; Stewart, M.G. Service Life Prediction of Reinforced Concrete Structures Exposed to Aggressive Environments. In Proceedings of the Proceeding of the 9th Durability of Building Materials and Components (DBMC'02), 2002; p. 119.

[91] Liu, T.; Chen, L.; Yang, M.; Sandanayake, M.; Miao, P.; Shi, Y.; Yap, P.-S. Sustainability Considerations of Green Buildings: A Detailed Overview on Current Advancements and Future Considerations. Paul Joseph (The Built Environment Research Institute, School of the Built Environment, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, BT37 0QB, Northern Ireland, UK) Svetlana Tretsiakova-McNally (The Built Environment Research Institute, Scho 2022, 14,14393, doi:10.3390/su142114393.

[92] Hao, H.; Bi, K.M.; Chen, W.S.; Pham, T.M.; Li, J. Towards next generation design of sustainable, durable, multi-hazard resistant, resilient, and smart civil engineering structures. Eng Struct 2023, 277,doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2022.115477.

[93] Chamasemani, N.F.; Kelishadi, M.; Mostafaei, H.; Najvani, M.A.D.; Mashayekhi, M. Environmental Impacts of Reinforced Concrete Buildings: Comparing Common and Sustainable Materials: A Case Study. School of Architecture Urban Planning Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, P.za L. da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy Department of Civil Engineering, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan 81551-399 2024, 4, 1-15, doi:10.3390/constrmater4010001.

[94] Janjua, S.Y.; Sarker, P.K.; Biswas, W.K. A Review of Residential Buildings’ Sustainability Performance Using a Life Cycle Assessment Approach. School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, 6102, Australia;Sustainable Engineering Group, Curtin University, Perth, 6102, Australia 2019, 1,doi:10.20900/jsr20190006.

[95] Bhattacharya, B. An appraisal of the LQI as an approach to setting target reliabilities in ISO 2394:2015. Struct Saf 2024, 109,doi:10.1016/j.strusafe.2024.102482.

[96] Board, T.R.; National Academies of Sciences, E.; Medicine. Performance-Based Seismic Bridge Design; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, 2013; p. 126.

[97] Zhang, Q.; Alam, M.S. Performance-based seismic design of bridges: a global perspective and critical review of past, present and future directions. Struct Infrastruct E 2019, 15,539-554, doi:10.1080/15732479.2018.1558269.

[98] Zhou, C.; Xie, Y.Z.; Wang, W.W.; Zheng, Y.Z. Performance-based design for improving impact resistance of RC bridge piers with CFRP grid-reinforced ECC. Eng Struct 2023, 275,doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2022.115217.

[99] Frangopol, D.; Sause, R.; Kusko, C. Bridge Maintenance, Safety, Management and Life-Cycle Optimization; CRC Press: 2010; p. 738.

[100] Bekdaş G.; Nigdeli, S.M.; Kayabekir, A.E.; Yang, X.-S. Optimization in civil engineering and metaheuristic algorithms: a review of state-of-the-art developments. Computational intelligence, optimization and inverse problems with applications in engineering 2019, 111-137.

[101] Macia, J.M.; Mirza, S. Sustainable and Durable Design of Concrete Bridges in Cold Regions. In Cold Regions Engineering 2012; Quebec City Quebec, Canada, 2012; pp. 186-189.

[102] Pacheco-Torgal, F. Eco-efficient construction and building materials research under the EU Framework Programme Horizon 2020. Constr Build Mater 2020, 51,151-162, doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.10.058.

[103] Neville, A.M. Properties of concrete 1995.

[104] Torrent, R.J. Bridge durability design after EN standards: present and future. Struct Infrastruct E 2019, 15,886-898, doi:10.1080/15732479.2017.1414859.

[105] Danfoss. Navigating the Singapore Green Mark 2021 Standard with Danfoss. Available online: https://assets.danfoss.com/documents/latest/198035/AD397530107654en-SG0102.pdf (accessed on 12/11).

[106] Torgal, F.P.; Jalali, S. Eco-efficient Construction and Building Materials; Springer-Verlag London Limited: London, 2011; pp. 1-249.

[107] Sandanayake, M.; Bouras, Y.; Haigh, R.; Vrcelj, Z. Current Sustainable Trends of Using Waste Materials in Concrete-A Decade Review. Paul Joseph (The Built Environment Research Institute, School of the Built Environment, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, BT37 0QB, Northern Ireland, UK) Svetlana Tretsiakova-McNally (The Built Environment Research Institute, Scho 2020, 12,doi:10.3390/su12229622.

[108] Makul, N. Recycled aggregate concrete: Technology and properties; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2023; p. 420.

[109] Blok, R.R., Teuffel, PM Patrick. Bio-Based Composite Bridge - Lessons Learned. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of IASS Annual Symposia, International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS), Hamburg, Germany, 2017.

[110] Rana, M.S.; Li, F.Y. An experimental investigation to predict the compressive strength of lightweight Ceramsite aggregate UHPC using boosting and bagging techniques. Mater Today Commun 2024, 41,doi:10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.110759.

[111] Farrar, C.; Worden, K. Structural Health Monitoring A Machine Learning Perspective; 2012.