Characteristic, resource approaches and safety utilization assessment of non-ferrous metal smelting slags: A literature review

Abstract

As an industrial byproduct of smelter operations, smelting slag has brought certain environmental issues including without taking safety precautions or using appropriate management. Through a thorough analysis of the literature published in the last years, the latest research progress on the characteristics, resource utilization pathways, and safety utilization evaluation of non-ferrous metal smelting slag was introduced in this work. Key findings indicate that different ore concentrate materials, smelting conditions and types determine chemical and mineralogical characteristics of smelting slag. Moreover, smelting slag exhibits extremely high flexibility in various applications, not only as metal recovery and construction materials, but also as agricultural fertilizers and remediation agents. At the same time, the importance of conducting strict safety assessments under various utilization scenarios to mitigate its potential environmental risks is emphasized. In addition, this article also emphasizes the direction of future research, including creating a comprehensive and quantized environmental risk assessment method of heavy metals in soil-slag mixtures, as well as exploring more innovative utilization methods of smelting slag. Overall, this review is significant for promoting research on the use of smelting slag in environmental protection and sustainable resource utilization.

Keywords

smelting slags / non-ferrous metal / slags characteristic / resource approach / safety utilization assessment

References

[1] LuoY-F, WuX-Y, SunH, WuY-G. Root-induced changes in aggregation characteristics and potentially toxic elements (PTEs) speciation in a revegetated artificial zinc smelting waste slag site[J]. Chemosphere, 2020, 243: 125414

[2] PiatakN M, ParsonsM B, SealR RII. Characteristics and environmental aspects of slag: A review[J]. Applied Geochemistry, 2015, 57236-266

[3] XuD-M, FuR-B, TongY-H, et al. . The potential environmental risk implications of heavy metals based on their geochemical and mineralogical characteristics in the size-segregated zinc smelting slags[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 315: 128199

[4] Alpİ, DeveciH, SüngünH. Utilization of flotation wastes of copper slag as raw material in cement production[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2008, 159(2–3): 390-395

[5] XuD-M, FuR-B. The mechanistic understanding of potential bioaccessibility of toxic heavy metals in the indigenous zinc smelting slags with multidisciplinary characterization[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2022, 425127864

[6] JarošíkováA, EttlerV, MihaljevičM, et al. . The pH-dependent leaching behavior of slags from various stages of a copper smelting process: Environmental implications[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 2017, 187178-186

[7] ZengJ-Q, LiC-X, WangJ-T, et al. . Pollution simulation and remediation strategy of a zinc smelting site based on multi-source information[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2022, 433: 128774

[8] LuoY-F, WuY-G, ShuJ, et al. . Effect of particulate organic matter fractions on the distribution of heavy metals with aided phytostabilization at a zinc smelting waste slag site[J]. Environmental Pollution, 2019, 253330-341

[9] ZhangL-Q, ZhouH-H, ChenX, et al. . Study of the micromorphology and health risks of arsenic in copper smelting slag tailings for safe resource utilization[J]. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2021, 219: 112321

[10] ShibayamaA, TakasakiY, WilliamT, et al. . Treatment of smelting residue for arsenic removal and recovery of copper using pyro-hydrometallurgical process[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2010, 181(1–3): 1016-1023

[11] KuriJ C, MajhiS, SarkerP K, et al. . Microstructural and non-destructive investigation of the effect of high temperature exposure on ground ferronickel slag blended fly ash geopolymer mortars[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2021, 43103099

[12] MikulaK, SkrzypczakD, IzydorczykG, et al. . From hazardous waste to fertilizer: Recovery of high-value metals from smelter slags[J]. Chemosphere, 2022, 297134226

[13] ZhaiQ-L, LiuR-Q, WangC-T, et al. . A potential industrial waste-waste synchronous treatment scheme of utilizing copper slag flotation tailings to remediate Cr (VI)-containing wastewater[J]. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2022, 10(3): 107685

[14] WangX-B, LiX-Y, YanX, et al. . Environmental risks for application of iron and steel slags in soils in China: A review[J]. Pedosphere, 2021, 31128-42

[15] ZhouH-H, LiuG-J, ZhangL-Q, et al. . Strategies for arsenic pollution control from copper pyrometallurgy based on the study of arsenic sources, emission pathways and speciation characterization in copper flash smelting systems[J]. Environmental Pollution, 2021, 270116203

[16] ChenJ-J, WangZ-H, WuY-F, et al. . Environmental benefits of secondary copper from primary copper based on life cycle assessment in China[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2019, 14635-44

[17] PIATAK N M. Environmental characteristics and utilization potential of metallurgical slag [M]// Environmental Geochemistry. Elsevier, 2018: 487–519. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63763-5.00020-3.

[18] PhiriT C, SinghP, NikoloskiA N. The potential for copper slag waste as a resource for a circular economy: A review—Part I[J]. Minerals Engineering, 2022, 180: 107474

[19] NathS K, RandhawaN S, KumarS. A review on characteristics of silico-manganese slag and its utilization into construction materials[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2022, 176105946

[20] TripathyS K, DasuJ, MurthyY R, et al. . Utilisation perspective on water quenched and air-cooled blast furnace slags[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 262121354

[21] de MatosP R, OliveiraJ C, MedinaT M, et al. . Use of air-cooled blast furnace slag as supplementary cementitious material for self-compacting concrete production[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 262120102

[22] BalczárI, KorimT, HullárH, et al. . Manufacture of air-cooled slag-based alkali-activated cements using mechanochemical activation[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2017, 137216-223

[23] El-DidamonyH, AmerA A, El-SokkaryT M, et al. . Effect of substitution of granulated slag by air-cooled slag on the characteristics of alkali activated slag[J]. Ceramics International, 2013, 39(1): 171-181

[24] O’connorJ, NguyenT B T, HoneyandsT, et al. . Production, characterisation, utilisation, and beneficial soil application of steel slag: A review[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2021, 419: 126478

[25] GoraiB, JanaR. Characteristics and utilisation of copper slag—A review[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2003, 39(4): 299-313

[26] XingY, GuoZ-F, SuW, et al. . Vanadium-bearing steel slag catalysts for the selective catalytic reduction of NO_x by NH₃[J]. New Journal of Chemistry, 2022, 46(31): 14944-14957

[27] HildorF, SoleimanisalimA H, SeemannM, et al. . Tar characteristics generated from a 10 kWth chemical-looping biomass gasifier using steel converter slag as an oxygen carrier[J]. Fuel, 2023, 331125770

[28] TianH-Y, GuoZ-Q, PanJ, et al. . Comprehensive review on metallurgical recycling and cleaning of copper slag[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2021, 168105366

[29] SarfoP, DasA, WyssG, et al. . Recovery of metal values from copper slag and reuse of residual secondary slag[J]. Waste Management, 2017, 70272-281

[30] PanD-A, LiL-L, TianX, et al. . A review on lead slag generation, characteristics, and utilization[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2019, 146: 140-155

[31] de Andrade LimaL, BernardezL. Characterization of the lead smelter slag in Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2011, 189(3): 692-699

[32] KayaM, HussainiS, KursunogluS. Critical review on secondary zinc resources and their recycling technologies[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2020, 195: 105362

[33] TyszkaR, KierczakJ, PietranikA, et al. . Extensive weathering of zinc smelting slag in a heap in Upper Silesia (Poland): Potential environmental risks posed by mechanical disturbance of slag deposits[J]. Applied Geochemistry, 2014, 4070-81

[34] XuH-B, ZhangY, LiZ-H, et al. . Development of a new cleaner production process for producing chromic oxide from chromite ore[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2006, 14(2): 211-219

[35] FaresA I, SohelK M A, Al-JabriK, et al. . Characteristics of ferrochrome slag aggregate and its uses as a green material in concrete—A review[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 294: 123552

[36] FroehlichP, LorenzT, MartinG, et al. . Valuable metals—Recovery processes, current trends, and recycling strategies[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2017, 56(10): 2544-2580

[37] LingH-B, BlanpainB, GuoM-X, et al. . Characterization of antimony-containing metallurgical residues for antimony recovery[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 327129491

[38] KlauberC, GräfeM, PowerG. Bauxite residue issues: II. Options for residue utilization[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2011, 108(1–2): 11-32

[39] LiuZ-B, LiH-X. Metallurgical process for valuable elements recovery from red mud—A review[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2015, 15529-43

[40] FriedeH. An experimental study of iron-smelting techniques used in the the South African iron age[J]. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1977, 77(11): 233-242

[41] MuralhaV S, RehrenT, ClarkR J. Characterization of an iron smelting slag from Zimbabwe by Raman microscopy and electron beam analysis[J]. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 2011, 42(12): 2077-2084

[42] FuY, QiaoH-X, FengQ, et al. . Review of new methods for resource utilisation of electrolytic manganese residue and its application in building materials[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 401: 132901

[43] ShiG-C, LiaoY-L, SuB-W, et al. . Kinetics of copper extraction from copper smelting slag by pressure oxidative leaching with sulfuric acid[J]. Separation and Purification Technology, 2020, 241116699

[44] ZhangQ-L, JiT, YangZ-X, et al. . Influence of different activators on microstructure and strength of alkali-activated nickel slag cementitious materials[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 235117449

[45] HumphrisJ, Martinon-TorresM, RehrenT, et al. . Variability in single smelting episodes—A pilot study using iron slag from Uganda[J]. Journal of Archaeological Science, 2009, 36(2): 359-369

[46] JiaX-C, MaL-Y, LiuJ, et al. . Reduction of antimony mobility from Sb-rich smelting slag by Shewanella oneidensis: Integrated biosorption and precipitation[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2022, 426127385

[47] PandaC, MishraK, PandaK, et al. . Environmental and technical assessment of ferrochrome slag as concrete aggregate material[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2013, 49262-271

[48] LiS-W, PanJ, ZhuD-Q, et al. . A new route for separation and recovery of Fe, Al and Ti from red mud[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2021, 168: 105314

[49] LanJ-R, DongY-Q, SunY, et al. . A novel method for solidification/stabilization of Cd(II), Hg(II), Cu(II) and Zn (II) by activated electrolytic manganese slag[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2021, 409124933

[50] ZHOU Wen-tao, LIU Xiao, LYU Xian-jun, et al. Extraction and separation of copper and iron from copper smelting slag: A review [J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2022: 133095. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133095.

[51] ZhangW-F, LuH-B, LiuF, et al. . Hydrothermal treatment of arsenic sulfide slag to immobilize arsenic into scorodite and recycle sulfur[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2021, 406124735

[52] AhmedI, NaylA, DaoudJ. Leaching and recovery of zinc and copper from brass slag by sulfuric acid[J]. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 2016, 20S280-S285

[53] DasP, UpadhyayS, DubeyS, et al. . Waste to wealth: Recovery of value-added products from steel slag[J]. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2021, 9(4): 105640

[54] KaksonenA H, SärkijärviS, PuhakkaJ A, et al. . Chemical and bacterial leaching of metals from a smelter slag in acid solutions[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2016, 159: 46-53

[55] ChauhanG, JadhaoP R, PantK K, et al. . Novel technologies and conventional processes for recovery of metals from waste electrical and electronic equipment: challenges & opportunities—A review[J]. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2018, 6(1): 1288-1304

[56] KrishnanS, ZulkapliN S, KamyabH, et al. . Current technologies for recovery of metals from industrial wastes: An overview[J]. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 2021, 22101525

[57] RoyS, DattaA, RehaniS. Flotation of copper sulphide from copper smelter slag using multiple collectors and their mixtures[J]. International Journal of Mineral Processing, 2015, 14343-49

[58] BALTAR C, COELHO A, NUNES J. Lead recovery from metallurgical slag by flotation [C]// International Mineral Processing Conference. 2012: 21–23.

[59] CAI Chuang-kai. Investigation on silver recovery from lead-zinc slag [J]. Multipurpose Utilization of Mineral Resources, 2017(3): 86–89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-6532.2017.03017. (in Chinese)

[60] DasB, MohantyJ, ReddyP, et al. . Characterisation and beneficiation studies of charge chrome slag[J]. Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy, 1997, 26(4): 153-157

[61] NuorivaaraT, KlemettinenA, Serna-GuerreroR. Improving the flotation recovery of Cu from flash smelting slags by utilizing cellulose-based frother formulationss[J]. Minerals Engineering, 2022, 181: 107522

[62] LiY, ChenY-M, TangC-B, et al. . Co-treatment of waste smelting slags and gypsum wastes via reductive-sulfurizing smelting for valuable metals recovery[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2017, 322402-412

[63] LongH-M, MengQ-M, WangP, et al. . Preparation of chromium-iron metal powder from chromium slag by reduction roasting and magnetic separation[J]. Journal of Iron and Steel Research International, 2015, 22(9): 771-776

[64] PanJ, ZhengG-L, ZhuD-Q, et al. . Utilization of nickel slag using selective reduction followed by magnetic separation[J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2013, 23(11): 3421-3427

[65] ZhuD-Q, XuJ-W, GuoZ-Q, et al. . Synergetic utilization of copper slag and ferruginous manganese ore via co-reduction followed by magnetic separation process[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 250: 119462

[66] MaY-B, DuX-Y, ShenY-Y, et al. . Crystallization and beneficiation of magnetite for iron recycling from nickel slags by oxidation-magnetic separation[J]. Metals, 2017, 7(8): 321

[67] KaksonenA H, SärkijärviS, PeuraniemiE, et al. . Metal biorecovery in acid solutions from a copper smelter slag[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2017, 168135-140

[68] WanJ-F, DuH, GaoF, et al. . Direct leaching of vanadium from vanadium-bearing steel slag using NaOH solutions: A case study[J]. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 2021, 42(4): 257-267

[69] NadirovR, SyzdykovaL, ZhussupovaA. Copper smelter slag treatment by ammonia solution: Leaching process optimization[J]. Journal of Central South University, 2017, 242799-2804

[70] JiangK-Q, GuoZ-H, XiaoX-Y, et al. . Effect of moderately thermophilic bacteria on metal extraction and electrochemical characteristics for zinc smelting slag in bioleaching system[J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2012, 22(12): 3120-3125

[71] LiaoY-L, JiG-X, ShiG-C, et al. . A Study on the selective leaching of valuable metals and the configuration of iron silicon phases in copper smelting slag by oxidative pressure leaching[J]. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 2021, 7: 1143-1153

[72] MavroulidouM. Mechanical characteristics and durability of concrete with water cooled copper slag aggregate[J]. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 2017, 8(5): 1841-1854

[73] SongQ-F, GuoM-Z, WangL, et al. . Use of steel slag as sustainable construction materials: A review of accelerated carbonation treatment[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2021, 173: 105740

[74] ShiC-J, MeyerC, BehnoodA. Utilization of copper slag in cement and concrete[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2008, 52(10): 1115-1120

[75] NishigakiM. Producing permeable blocks and pavement bricks from molten slag[J]. Waste Management, 2000, 20(2–3): 185-192

[76] AliB, OuniM H E, KurdaR. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of precast concrete blocks utilizing ground granulated blast furnace slag[J]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2022, 29(55): 83580-83595

[77] Galán-ArboledasR J, De DiegoJ Á, DondiM, et al. . Energy, environmental and technical assessment for the incorporation of EAF stainless steel slag in ceramic building materials[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2017, 1421778-1788

[78] BuzatuT, TalpoşE, PetrescuM I, et al. . Utilization of granulated lead slag as a structural material in roads constructions[J]. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 2015, 17: 707-717

[79] SasW, GłuchowskiA, RadziemskaM, et al. . Environmental and geotechnical assessment of the steel slags as a material for road structure[J]. Materials, 2015, 8(8): 4857-4875

[80] WuQ-S, WuY, TongW-H, et al. . Utilization of nickel slag as raw material in the production of Portland cement for road construction[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 193: 426-434

[81] JiaoW-X, ShaA-M, LiuZ-Z, et al. . Utilization of steel slags to produce thermal conductive asphalt concretes for snow melting pavements[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 261: 121197

[82] AlbitarM, AliM M, VisintinP, et al. . Effect of granulated lead smelter slag on strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2015, 83128-135

[83] ZhangZ-H, ZhuY-C, YangT, et al. . Conversion of local industrial wastes into greener cement through geopolymer technology: A case study of highmagnesium nickel slag[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2017, 141: 463-471

[84] WuQ-S, ChenQ-J, HuangZ-C, et al. . Preparation and characterization of porous ceramics from nickel smelting slag and metakaolin[J]. Ceramics International, 2020, 46(4): 4581-4586

[85] ZhangX-G, LiL-L, HassanQ U, et al. . Preparation and characterization of glass ceramics synthesized from lead slag and lead-zinc tailings[J]. Ceramics International, 2023, 49(10): 16164-16173

[86] HeR-X, ZhangS-Y, ZhangX-L, et al. . Copper slag: The leaching behavior of heavy metals and its applicability as a supplementary cementitious material[J]. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2021, 9(2): 105132

[87] ZhaoZ-Z, LiuW-H, JiangY-W, et al. . Solidification of heavy metals in lead smelting slag and development of cementitious materials[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2022, 359: 132134

[88] XiB-D, LiR-F, ZhaoX-Y, et al. . Constraints and opportunities for the recycling of growing ferronickel slag in China[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2018, 13915-16

[89] ZhaY-H, LiC-H, WangZ-R. Research progress on application of steel slag in agriculture[J]. Characterization of Minerals, Metals, and Materials, 2021, 2021165-175

[90] AgnelloA C, PotyszA, FourdrinC, et al. . Impact of pyrometallurgical slags on sunflower growth, metal accumulation and rhizosphere microbial communities[J]. Chemosphere, 2018, 208: 626-639

[91] MatveevaV, LytaevaT, DanilovA. Application of steel-smelting slags as material for reclamation of degraded lands[J]. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 2018, 19(6): 93-103

[92] MehmoodS, WangX, AhmedW, et al. . Removal mechanisms of slag against potentially toxic elements in soil and plants for sustainable agriculture development: A critical review[J]. Sustainability, 2021, 13(9): 5255

[93] XiaD-H, RenL, ChenL-Z. Study of Ca-Mg-S-Si fertilizer produced by magnesium slag[J]. Advanced Materials Research, 2012, 347: 3166-3170

[94] ChenD, MengZ-W, ChenY-P. Toxicity assessment of molybdenum slag as a mineral fertilizer: A case study with pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.)[J]. Chemosphere, 2019, 217816-824

[95] CaiS, LiuB, LiJ-G, et al. . Biochemical analysis and toxicity assessment of utilization of argon oxygen decarbonization slag as a mineral fertilizer for tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb) planting[J]. Sustainability, 2022, 14(15): 9286

[96] WangX, CaiQ-S. Steel slag as an iron fertilizer for corn growth and soil improvement in a pot experiment[J]. Pedosphere, 2006, 164519-524

[97] HeH-D, TamN F, YaoA-J, et al. . Growth and Cd uptake by rice (Oryza sativa) in acidic and Cd-contaminated paddy soils amended with steel slag[J]. Chemosphere, 2017, 189: 247-254

[98] LIN Shun-da, JIANG Xu-guang, ZHAO Yi-meng. Disposal technology and new progress for dioxins and heavy metals in fly ash from municipal solid waste incineration: A critical review [J]. Environmental Pollution, 2022: 119878. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119878.

[99] WenT-T, YangL-Y, DangC-Y, et al. . Effect of basic oxygen furnace slag on succession of the bacterial community and immobilization of various metal ions in acidic contaminated mine soil[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2020, 388: 121784

[100] LimaL D A, BernardezL, Dos SantosM, et al. . Remediation of clay soils contaminated with potentially toxic elements: The Santo Amaro lead smelter, Brazil, case[J]. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal, 2018, 27(7): 573-591

[101] OhC, RheeS, OhM, et al. . Removal characteristics of As (III) and As (V) from acidic aqueous solution by steel making slag[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2012, 213147-155

[102] SunQ-W, YangH-F, FengX-D, et al. . Synchronous stabilization of Pb, Zn, Cd, and As in lead smelting slag by industrial solid waste[J]. Chemosphere, 2023, 339: 139755

[103] BanJ-X, SunK-K, YaoJ, et al. . Advances in the use of recycled non-ferrous slag as a resource for non-ferrous metal mine site remediation[J]. Environmental Research, 2022, 213113533

[104] NaiduT S, SheridanC M, Van dykL D. Basic oxygen furnace slag: Review of current and potential uses[J]. Minerals Engineering, 2020, 149106234

[105] IzydorczykG, MikulaK, SkrzypczakD, et al. . Potential environmental pollution from copper metallurgy and methods of management[J]. Environmental Research, 2021, 197111050

[106] ZhangY-H, ZengH, DongX-W, et al. . In situ cadmium removal from paddy soils by a reusable remediation device and its health risk assessment in rice[J]. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 2021, 23101713

[107] MuJ, HuZ-Y, XieZ-J, et al. . Influence of CaO-activated silicon-based slag amendment on the growth and heavy metal uptake of vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) grown in multi-metal-contaminated soils[J]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2019, 2632243-32254

[108] LiY-K, QiX-J, LiG-H, et al. . Removal of arsenic in acidic wastewater using lead-zinc smelting slag: From waste solid to As-stabilized mineral[J]. Chemosphere, 2022, 301: 134736

[109] LiY-K, QiX-J, LiG-H, et al. . Efficient removal of arsenic from copper smelting wastewater via a synergy of steel-making slag and KMnO₄[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 287125578

[110] ChowdhuryS R, YanfulE K, PrattA R. Recycling of nickel smelter slag for arsenic remediation—An experimental study[J]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2014, 2110096-10107

[111] GholampourA, DanishA, OzbakkalogluT, et al. . Mechanical and durability characteristics of natural fiber-reinforced geopolymers containing lead smelter slag and waste glass sand[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 352: 129043

[112] EttlerV, JohanZ, KříbekB, et al. . Mineralogy and environmental stability of slags from the Tsumeb smelter, Namibia[J]. Applied Geochemistry, 2009, 24(1): 1-15

[113] LiuT-Z, LiF-L, JinZ-S, et al. . Acidic leaching of potentially toxic metals cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc from two Zn smelting slag materials incubated in an acidic soil[J]. Environmental Pollution, 2018, 238359-368

[114] da SilvaW R, da SilvaF B V, AraújoP R M, et al. . Assessing human health risks and strategies for phytoremediation in soils contaminated with As, Cd, Pb, and Zn by slag disposal[J]. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2017, 144: 522-530

[115] EttlerV, CihlováM, JarošíkováA, et al. . Oral bioaccessibility of metal (loid) s in dust materials from mining areas of northern Namibia[J]. Environment International, 2019, 124: 205-215

[116] PengY-S, YangR-D, JinT, et al. . Risk assessment for potentially toxic metal (loid) s in potatoes in the indigenous zinc smelting area of northwestern Guizhou Province, China[J]. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 2018, 120: 328-339

[117] GuoX-J, WangK-P, HeM-C, et al. . Antimony smelting process generating solid wastes and dust: Characterization and leaching behaviors[J]. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2014, 26(7): 1549-1556

[118] WangD-Q, WangQ, ZhuangS-Y, et al. . Evaluation of alkali-activated blast furnace ferronickel slag as a cementitious material: reaction mechanism, engineering characteristics and leaching behaviors[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 188: 860-873

[119] Alpİ, DeveciH, SüngünH. Utilization of flotation wastes of copper slag as raw material in cement production[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2008, 159(2–3): 390-395

[120] YaoB-M, WangS-Q, XieS-T, et al. . Optimal soil Eh, pH for simultaneous decrease of bioavailable Cd, As in co-contaminated paddy soil under water management strategies[J]. Science of the Total Environment, 2022, 806: 151342

[121] MahediM, CetinB. Leaching of elements from cement activated fly ash and slag amended soils[J]. Chemosphere, 2019, 235565-574

[122] YılmazA, KaraşahinM. Mechanical properties of ferrochromium slag in granular layers of flexible pavements[J]. Materials and Structures, 2010, 43: 309-317

[123] NGUYEN L H, NGUYENT D, TRAN T V N, et al. Steel slag quality control for road construction aggregates and its environmental impact: case study of Vietnamese steel industry—Leaching of heavy metals from steel-making slag [J]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2021: 1–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16438-1.

[124] MansoJ M, PolancoJ A, LosañezM, et al. . Durability of concrete made with EAF slag as aggregate[J]. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2006, 28(6): 528-534

[125] EdwinR S, GruyaertE, De BelieN. Valorization of secondary copper slag as aggregate and cement replacement in ultra-high performance concrete[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2022, 54: 104567

[126] XuH, GongW-L, SylteboL, et al. . Effect of blast furnace slag grades on fly ash based geopolymer waste forms[J]. Fuel, 2014, 133332-340

[127] LiuD-G, KeY, MinX-B, et al. . Cotreatment of MSWI fly ash and granulated lead smelting slag using a geopolymer system[J]. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2019, 16(1): 156

[128] Ter TeoP, AnasyidaA S, KhoC M, et al. . Recycling of Malaysia’s EAF steel slag waste as novel fluxing agent in green ceramic tile production: Sintering mechanism and leaching assessment[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019, 241118144

[129] HuH-P, DengQ-F, LiC, et al. . The recovery of Zn and Pb and the manufacture of lightweight bricks from zinc smelting slag and clay[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2014, 271220-227

[130] LiC-W, ZhangP-P, ZengL-H, et al. . Study on preparation of glass-ceramics from municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash and chromium slag[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2023, 68106080

[131] LiuW-H, ZhaoZ-Z, WanY-F, et al. . Development and application of lead smelting slag eco-cementitious material: Synergistic excitation regulation and heavy metal solidification[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 400132843

[132] WangD-Q, WangQ, HuangZ-X. Reuse of copper slag as a supplementary cementitious material: Reactivity and safety[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2020, 162105037

[133] CaiS, RenQ-Q, ZengY-N, et al. . Toxicity assessment of the utilization of AOD slag as a mineral fertilizer for pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) planting[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 328129617

[134] WangX-B, YanX, LiX-Y. Environmental risks for application of magnesium slag to soils in China[J]. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 2020, 19(7): 1671-1679

[135] LiY-K, ZhuX, QiX-J, et al. . Efficient removal of arsenic from copper smelting wastewater in form of scorodite using copper slag[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 270122428