Natural forests exhibit higher organic carbon concentrations and recalcitrant carbon proportions in soil than plantations: a global data synthesis

Abstract

Different chemical compositions of soil organic carbon (SOC) affect its persistence and whether it significantly differs between natural forests and plantations remains unclear. By synthesizing 234 observations of SOC chemical compositions, we evaluated global patterns of concentration, individual chemical composition (alkyl C, O-alkyl C, aromatic C, and carbonyl C), and their distribution evenness. Our results indicate a notably higher SOC, a markedly larger proportion of recalcitrant alkyl C, and lower easily decomposed carbonyl C proportion in natural forests. However, SOC chemical compositions were appreciably more evenly distributed in plantations. Based on the assumed conceptual index of SOC chemical composition evenness, we deduced that, compared to natural forests, plantations may have higher possible resistance to SOC decomposition under disturbances. In tropical regions, SOC levels, recalcitrant SOC chemical composition, and their distributed evenness were significantly higher in natural forests, indicating that SOC has higher chemical stability and possible resistance to decomposition. Climate factors had minor effects on alkyl C in forests globally, while they notably affected SOC chemical composition in tropical forests. This could contribute to the differences in chemical compositions and their distributed evenness between plantations and natural stands.

References

[] AngstG, Kögel-KnabnerI, KirfelK, HertelD, MuellerCW. Spatial distribution and chemical composition of soil organic matter fractions in rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil under European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Geoderma, 2016, 264: 179-187

[] BaldockJ, OadesJ, WatersA, PengX, VassalloA, WilsonM. Aspects of the chemical structure of soil organic materials as revealed by solid-state ¹³C NMR spectroscopy. Biogeochemistry, 1992, 16: 1-42

[] BergB, MeentemeyerV. Litter quality in a north European transect versus carbon storage potential. Plant Soil, 2002, 242: 83-92

[] ChenCR, XuZH, MathersNJ. Soil carbon pools in adjacent natural and plantation forests of subtropical Australia. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2004, 68: 282-291

[] ChengL, BookerFL, TuC, BurkeyKO, ZhouLS, ShewHD, RuftyTW, HuSJ. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi increase organic carbon decomposition under elevated CO₂. Science, 2012, 337: 1084-1087

[] ChitiT, CertiniG, MarzaioliF, D'AcquiLP, ForteC, CastaldiS, ValentiniR. Composition and turnover time of organic matter in soil fractions with different magnetic susceptibility. Geoderma, 2019, 349: 88-96

[] CondronLM, NewmanRH. Chemical nature of soil organic matter under grassland and recently established forest. Eur J Soil Sci, 1998, 49: 597-603

[] CrowSE, LajthaK, FilleyTR, SwanstonCW, BowdenRD, CaldwellBA. Sources of plant-derived carbon and stability of organic matter in soil: implications for global change. Glob Change Biol, 2009, 15: 2003-2019

[] CusackDF, HaltermanSM, TannerEVJ, WrightSJ, HockadayW, DietterichLH, TurnerBL. Decadal-scale litter manipulation alters the biochemical and physical character of tropical forest soil carbon. Soil Biol Biochem, 2018, 124: 199-209

[] DavidsonEA, JanssensIA. Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature, 2006, 440: 165-173

[] De MarcoA, PanicoSC, MemoliV, SantorufoL, ZarrelliA, BarileR, MaistoG. Differences in soil carbon and nitrogen pools between afforested pine forests and natural shrublands in a Mediterranean area. Appl Soil Ecol, 2022, 170

[] DymovAA, ZhangurovEV, HagedornF. Soil organic matter composition along altitudinal gradients in permafrost affected soils of the Subpolar Ural Mountains. CATENA, 2015, 131: 140-148

[] FangXH, ZhangJC, MengMJ, GuoXP, WuYW, LiuX, ZhaoKL, DingLZ, ShaoYF, FuWJ. Forest-type shift and subsequent intensive management affected soil organic carbon and microbial community in southeastern China. Eur J for Res, 2017, 136: 689-697

[] FengX, SimpsonAJ, WilsonKP, Dudley WilliamsD, SimpsonMJ. Increased cuticular carbon sequestration and lignin oxidation in response to soil warming. Nat Geosci, 2008, 1: 836-839

[] GeorgiouK, JacksonRB, VinduškováO, AbramoffRZ, AhlströmA, FengW, HardenJW, PellegriniAFA, PolleyHW, SoongJL, RileyWJ, TornMS. Global stocks and capacity of mineral-associated soil organic carbon. Nat Commun, 2022, 13: 3797

[] GuanS, AnN, ZongN, HeYT, ShiPL, ZhangJJ, HeNP. Climate warming impacts on soil organic carbon fractions and aggregate stability in a Tibetan alpine meadow. Soil Biol Biochem, 2018, 116: 224-236

[] HallSJ, YeC, WeintraubSR, HockadayWC. Molecular trade-offs in soil organic carbon composition at continental scale. Nat Geosci, 2020, 13: 687-692

[] HasegawaS, MarshallJ, SparrmanT, NasholmT. Decadal nitrogen addition alters chemical composition of soil organic matter in a boreal forest. Geoderma, 2021, 386

[] HongSB, PiaoSL, ChenAP, LiuYW, LiuLL, PengSS, SardansJ, SunY, PeñuelasJ, ZengH. Afforestation neutralizes soil pH. Nat Commun, 2018, 9: 520

[] HongSB, YinGD, PiaoSL, DybzinskiR, CongN, LiXY, WangK, PeñuelasJ, ZengH, ChenAP. Divergent responses of soil organic carbon to afforestation. Nat Sustain, 2020, 3: 694-700

[] HuaFY, BruijnzeelLA, MeliP, MartinPA, ZhangJ, NakagawaS, MiaoXR, WangWY, McEvoyC, Peña-ArancibiaJL, BrancalionPHS, SmithP, EdwardsDP, BalmfordA. The biodiversity and ecosystem service contributions and trade-offs of forest restoration approaches. Science, 2022, 375: 839-844

[] HuangZQ, XuZH, ChenCR, BoydS. Changes in soil carbon during the establishment of a hardwood plantation in subtropical Australia. For Ecol Manag, 2008, 254: 46-55

[] Jiménez-GonzálezMA, De la RosaJM, Jiménez-MorilloNT, AlmendrosG, González-PérezJA, KnickerH. Post-fire recovery of soil organic matter in a Cambisol from typical Mediterranean forest in Southwestern Spain. Sci Total Environ, 2016, 572: 1414-1421

[] KallenbachC, FreyS, GrandyA. Direct evidence for microbial-derived soil organic matter formation and it ecophsiological controls. Nat Commun, 2016, 7: 13630

[] KangHZ, YuWJ, DuttaS, GaoHH. Soil microbial community composition and function are closely associated with soil organic matter chemistry along a latitudinal gradient. Geoderma, 2021, 383

[] Kögel-KnabnerI. The macromolecular organic composition of plant and microbial residues as inputs to soil organic matter: fourteen years on. Soil Biol Biochem, 2017, 34: 139-162

[] Kögel-KnabnerI, HatcherPG, TegelaarEW, de LeeuwJW. Aliphatic components of forest soil organic matter as determined by solid-state ¹³C NMR and analytical pyrolysis. Sci Total Environ, 1992, 113: 89-106

[] LaneN, MartinW. The energetics of genome complexity. Nature, 2010, 467: 929-934

[] LehmannJ, KleberM. The contentious nature of soil organic matter. Nature, 2015, 528: 60-68

[] LehmannJ, HanselCM, KaiserC, KleberM, MaherK, ManzoniS, NunanN, ReichsteinM, SchimelJP, TornMS, WiederWR, Kögel-KnabnerI. Persistence of soil organic carbon caused by functional complexity. Nat Geosci, 2020, 13: 529-534

[] LemmaB, KlejaDB, NilssonI, OlssonM. Soil carbon sequestration under different exotic tree species in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia. Geoderma, 2006, 136: 886-898

[] LiYF, ZhangJJ, ChangSX, JiangPK, ZhouGM, ShenZM, WuJS, LinL, WangZS, ShenMC. Converting native shrub forests to Chinese chestnut plantations and subsequent intensive management affected soil C and N pools. For Ecol Manag, 2014, 312: 161-169

[] LiaoCZ, LuoYQ, FangCM, ChenJK, LiB. The effects of plantation practice on soil properties based on the comparison between natural and planted forests: a meta-analysis. Glob Ecol Biogeogr, 2012, 21: 318-327

[] LiuCH, LuoYQ, ChenZL, LianZM. The relationship between soil animal community ecology and soil micro-ecological-environment. Ecol Environ, 2007, 16: 1564-1569

[] LorenzK, LalR, PrestonCM, NieropKGJ. Strengthening the soil organic carbon pool by increasing contributions from recalcitrant aliphatic bio(macro)molecules. Geoderma, 2007, 142: 1-10

[] MathersNJ, XuZH. Solid-state ¹³C NMR spectroscopy: characterization of soil organic matter under two contrasting residue management regimes in a 2-year-old pine plantation of subtropical Australia. Geoderma, 2003, 114: 19-31

[] MikuttaR, KleberM, TornMS, JahnR. Stabilization of soil organic matter: Association with minerals or chemical recalcitrance?. Biogeochemistry, 2006, 77: 25-56

[] NieXQ, WangD, YangLC, ZhouGY. Controls on variation of soil organic carbon concentration in the shrublands of the north-eastern Tibetan Plateau. Eur J Soil Sci, 2021, 72: 1817-1830

[] ÖzkanU, GökbulakF. Effect of vegetation change from forest to herbaceous vegetation cover on soil moisture and temperature regimes and soil water chemistry. CATENA, 2017, 149: 158-166

[] PibumrungP, GajaseniN, PopanA. Profiles of carbon stocks in forest, reforestation and agricultural land, Northern Thailand. J For Res, 2008, 19: 11-18

[] PisaniO, FreySD, SimpsonAJ, SimpsonMJ. Soil warming and nitrogen deposition alter soil organic matter composition at the molecular-level. Biogeochemistry, 2015, 123: 391-409

[] QuideauSA, ChadwickOA, BenesiA, GrahamRC, AndersonMA. A direct link between forest vegetation type and soil organic matter composition. Geoderma, 2001, 104: 41-60

[] R Development Core Team. R: a language and environment for statistical computing, 2016 Vienna R Foundation for Statistial Computing

[] RameshT, BolanNS, KirkhamMB, WijesekaraH, KanchikerimathM, RaoCS, SandeepS, RinklebeJ, OkYS, ChoudhuryBU. Soil organic carbon dynamics: impact of land use changes and management practices: a review. Adv Agron, 2019, 156: 1-107

[] RasmussenC, HeckmanK, WiederWR, KeiluweitM, LawrenceCR, BerheAA, BlankinshipJC, CrowSE, DruhanJL, Hicks PriesCE, Marin-SpiottaE, PlanteAF, SchädeC, SchimelJP, SierraCA, ThompsonA, WagaiR. Beyond clay: towards an improved set of variables for predicting soil organic matter content. Biogeochemistry, 2018, 137: 297-306

[] RowleyMC, GrandS, VerrecchiaÉP. Calcium-mediated stabilisation of soil organic carbon. Biogeochemistry, 2018, 137: 27-49

[] SchmidtM, TornW, AbivenS, DittmarT, GuggenbergerG, JanssensIA, KleberM, Kogel-KnabnerI, LehmannJ, ManningDA, NannipieriP, RasseDP, WeinerS, TrumboreSE. Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature, 2011, 478: 49-56

[] SchuurEA, McGuireAD, SchädelC, GrosseG, HardenJ, HayesDJ, HugeliusG, KovenCD, KuhryP, LawrenceDM. Climate change and the permafrost carbon feedback. Nature, 2015, 520: 171-179

[] ShannonC, WeaverW. The mathematical theory of communication, 1949 Urbana University of Illinois Press 3-94

[] ShenCC, XiongJB, ZhangHY, FengYZ, LinXG, LiXY, LiangWJ, ChuHY. Soil pH drives the spatial distribution of bacterial communities along elevation on Changbai Mountain. Soil Biol Biochem, 2013, 57: 204-211

[] ShresthaBM, CertiniG, ForteC, SinghBR. Soil organic matter quality under different land uses in a mountain watershed of Nepal. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2008, 72: 1563-1569

[] SlessarevE, LinY, BinghamN, JohnsonJ, DaiY, SchimelJ, ChadwickO. Water balance creates a threshold in soil pH at the global scale. Nature, 2016, 540: 567-569

[] TashiS, SinghB, KeitelC, AdamsM. Soil carbon and nitrogen stocks in forests along an altitudinal gradient in the eastern Himalayas and a meta-analysis of global data. Glob Change Biol, 2016, 22: 2255-2268

[] WangH, DingY, ZhangYG, WangJX, FreedmanZ, LiuPC, CongW, WangJ, ZangRG, LiuSR. Evenness of soil organic carbon chemical components changes with tree species richness, composition and functional diversity across forests in China. Glob Change Biol, 2023, 29: 2852-2864

[] WangH, LiuSR, SchindlerA, WangJX, YangYJ, SongZC, YouYM, ShiZM, LiZY, ChenL, MingAG, LuLH, CaiDX. Experimental warming reduced topsoil carbon content and increased soil bacterial diversity in a subtropical planted forest. Soil Biol Biochem, 2019, 133: 155-164

[] WangH, LiuSR, SongZC, YangYJ, WangJX, YouYM, ZhangX, ShiZM, NongY, MingAG, LuLH, CaiDX. Introducing nitrogen-fixing tree species and mixing with Pinus massoniana alters and evenly distributes various chemical compositions of soil organic carbon in a planted forest in southern China. For Ecol Manag, 2019, 449

[] WangH, SongZC, WangJJ, YangYJ, WangJ, LiuSR. The quadratic relationship between tree species richness and topsoil organic carbon stock in a subtropical mixed-species planted forest. Eur J for Res, 2022, 141(6): 1151-1161

[] WangJ, WangH, DingY, ZhangYG, CongW, ZangRG, LiuSR. Shifting cultivation and logging change soil organic carbon functional groups in tropical lowland rainforests on Hainan Island in China. For Ecol Manag, 2023, 549

[] WangJ, WangH, LiX, NieXQ, LiuSR. Effects of environmental factors and tree species mixtures on the functional groups of soil organic carbon across subtropical plantations in southern China. Plant Soil, 2022, 480: 265-281

[] WuJS, LinHP, MengCF, JiangPK, FuWJ. Effects of intercropping grasses on soil organic carbon and microbial community functional diversity under Chinese hickory (Carya cathayensis Sarg.) stands. Soil Res, 2014, 52: 575-583

[] WynnJG, BirdMI, VellenL, Grand-ClementE, CarterJ, BerrySL. Continental-scale measurement of the soil organic carbon pool with climatic, edaphic, and biotic controls. Glob Biogeochem Cycles, 2006, 20: 1-12

[] YangYH, LiP, HeHL, ZhaoX, DattaA, MaWH, ZhangY, LiuXJ, HanWX, WilsonMC, FangJY. Long-term changes in soil pH across major forest ecosystems in China. Geophys Res Lett, 2015, 42: 933-940

[] ZarafsharM, BazotS, MatinizadehM, BordbarSK, RoustaMJ, KoochY, EnayatiK, AbbasiA, NegahdarsaberM. Do tree plantations or cultivated fields have the same ability to maintain soil quality as natural forests?. Appl Soil Ecol, 2020, 151