The shear characteristics of the interface formed between a cemented tailings backfill (CTB) and surrounding rocks play a crucial role in the design and stability of underground goafs. To investigate the shear behavior of CTB–rock interfaces, rock samples representing the topography of surrounding rocks were constructed using 3D morphology scanning and engraving techniques. A series of direct shear tests were conducted on the CTB rock samples to examine the influence of the cement–tailings ratio on the interfacial shear behavior. The results showed that the compressive strength of the CTB and shear strength of the CTB–rock interface decreased with decreasing cement proportion. With deceasing cement content, the failure area of the CTB after the test increased, and the roughness of the newly generated interface reduced. A digital image correlation analysis revealed that the compressive stress concentration in the region with an obtuse angle with respect to the shear direction was the primary cause of CTB failure. Moreover, the correlation between the wear area and the silicon-dense area helped confirm that the silicon particles are more prone to failure in these areas than in other regions. Our findings provide new insights into the shear sliding mechanism at CTB–rock interfaces and can aid in the selection of the cement–tailings ratio at engineering sites. For example, if the horizontal principal stress of the surrounding rock mass in a backfilling area is relatively high, the cement content can be reduced for CTB applications.

To address the dual challenges of resource utilization of mining solid waste (e.g., coal gangue) and performance enhancement of cemented rockfill, this study systematically investigates the mechanisms of ultrasonic dispersion time and polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE) on the properties of cellulose nanofiber (CNF)-modified cemented rockfill. A series of comparative experiments were designed with varying ultrasonic dispersion times (0–60 min) and PCE dosages (0.1wt%–0.4wt%). Through mechanical testing, hydration product analysis, and microstructural characterization, the study revealed the advantages of PCE in promoting CNF dispersion to enhance the engineering applicability of cemented rockfill. The results demonstrate that: (1) Ultrasonic dispersion for 30 min increases the compressive strength by 37.7% compared to the untreated group; however, excessive ultrasonication (60 min) induces hydrolysis of CNF, releasing reducing sugars that retard hydration. (2) PCE facilitates CNF dispersion, achieving a 29.1% increase in compressive strength at a dosage of 0.4wt%, while simultaneously improving hydration products and microstructural development. (3) While ultrasonic dispersion yields slightly higher strength improvements, PCE demonstrates superior cost-effectiveness and operational convenience, rendering it more viable for industrial adoption. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the nano-enhanced modification of cemented rockfill, offering new insights into the recycling of solid waste and the development of high-performance materials.

To study the use of a shaft support for the auxiliary shaft of the Xi’anshan Iron Mine, in high-stress strata at a depth between 900 and 1000 m, a new type of mold was developed using the physical similarity model test method, based on the similarity theory, and an experimental model of the shaft lining and surrounding rock was poured. Two sets of large-scale destructive tests were conducted on the shaft lining and surrounding rock. The deformation and failure laws of the shaft lining and surrounding rock under high ground stress and their ultimate horizontal bearing capacity characteristics were studied, and the safety support characteristics of the shaft lining under the interaction of the shaft lining and surrounding rock were obtained. An experimental study demonstrated that the axial pressure on the shaft wall directly affected its ultimate horizontal bearing capacity of the shaft wall. In designing the shaft wall, the influence of the axial pressure on the stress state of the concrete should be considered, and the vertical pressure should be modified to optimize the utilization of the three-dimensional compressive strength of the concrete. The reliability of the 400-mm C30 concrete shaft wall at a depth of 1000 m in the actual project was verified, and the ultimate horizontal bearing capacity of the shaft wall was obtained for a depth of 1000 m.

During rock drilling and blasting activities, stemming blast holes is to prevent high-pressure explosive gases from the holes, thereby enhancing the overall blasting effectiveness. Hence, it is imperative to investigate the dynamic mechanical properties of the stemming materials. In this study, impact compression tests were conducted on self-swelling cartridges (SSCs) using a split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB), aiming to evaluate dynamic performances across strain rate range of 20 to 65 s⁻¹. Test results indicate that the dynamic compressive strength of SSCs exhibits the following trends: it increases with increasing density of SSC, decreases with an increase in insertion gap, and follows an initial rise and subsequent fall trend with an increase in water absorption. The order of significance among these factors is density > water absorption > insertion gaps. SSCs exhibit a pronounced strain-rate strengthening dependence in dynamic compressive strength. Furthermore, both the compressive peak stress and peak strain of SSCs follow a well-defined quadratic upward trend with increasing strain rates. As the strain rate increases, the degree of fragmentation, absorbed energy, and dynamic increase factor exhibit an upward trend. Model experimental results indicate that, compared to cementitious stemming materials, SSCs can prolong the duration of gas explosion action. Therefore, SSCs are more suitable for high strain-rate applications such as blasting stemming and rock burst control.

Red mud is a kind of industrial waste residue produced in the process of alumina production, which has strong suspension and is difficult to precipitate and filter. This study compared the effects of 4 kinds of filter aids, including CaCl₂, polymerized ferrous sulfate (PFS), steel slag (SS), and Portland cement (PC), on the filtration rate, filter cake moisture content, and Na₂O content of red mud slurry. At a dosage of 10 g·L⁻¹, the filtration effects were in the following order: PFS > CaCl₂ > SS > PC. Under the combination of 5 g·L⁻¹ SS and 5 g·L⁻¹ PC, the better filtration effect was achieved with a filtration time of 205.17 s, which was reduced by 58.52% compared to the original red mud. The combined use of SS and PC exhibits better advantages in terms of cost and filtration effect. This study provides a data foundation for the rapid filtration of red mud slurry. The use of SS and PC as filter aids for red mud holds broad application prospects.

High-alumina iron ores (Al₂O₃ content > 3.0wt%) are widely utilized in sinter production due to their economic benefits, yet their high alumina content challenges the performance of sinter and the stability of blast furnaces. This study focuses on the application of high-alumina composite calcium ferrites (SFCA) in the sintering of high-alumina iron ores. By prefabricating calcium ferrites, we aimed to substitute phase adjustment for compositional tuning, particularly examining its effects on enhancing sinter quality at 30wt%, 50wt%, and 100wt% replacement ratios of Al₂O₃. Previous work developed two types of high-alumina SFCA (A-type and B-type), with A-type demonstrating superior experimental performance. Our results indicate that increasing the proportion of A-type SFCA in the raw materials leads to higher calcium ferrite and composite calcium ferrite contents, while decreasing the proportions of Al₂O₃, CaO, SiO₂, calcium silicate, and calcium alumino-ferrite (CaAl_xFe_2−xO₄). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mineralogical analyses reveal that sinter substituted with A-type SFCA primarily consists of SFCA and calcium ferraluminate (CFA), with increasing calcium ferrite content and decreasing porosity and silicate content as the substitution ratio increases. Complete substitution of Al₂O₃ with A-type SFCA enhances the compressive strength of the sinters to 22.57 MPa, a 6.76 MPa improvement over traditional methods. With 100wt% substitution, the reducibility reaches 0.85, a 0.33 increase over the baseline (A-type and B-type SFCA are not added). A cost-effective method for SFCA production using high-alumina ores, hazardous waste, and iron-calcium-based solid waste is proposed to lower production costs and promote the recycling of industrial solid waste. A-type SFCA exhibits significant advantages in mechanical properties, reducibility, and melting characteristics, validating its potential in optimizing sinter performance and reducing carbon emissions, thereby laying a theoretical and practical foundation for the industrial application of high-alumina SFCA.

Vanadium is a strategic metal in many countries, and it is mainly extracted from vanadium slag produced in titanomagnetite metallurgy. The traditional sodium roasting process for vanadium extraction poses environmental threats, and a green calcification process has been proposed. However, the vanadium extraction rate in the calcification process is much lower than in the sodium roasting process, which is related to vanadium solid solubility in Fe₂TiO₅. Previous studies about vanadium behavior in Fe₂TiO₅ were conducted in air, with a vanadium oxidation state of V⁵⁺. Vanadium with lower oxidation states has been detected in the tailings in the calcification process. The present paper studied the effects of vanadium oxidation states on the solid solubility in Fe₂TiO₅ through solid-state reaction, X-ray diffraction characterization, transmission electron microscopy characterization, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis, and solid solution modeling. The relative interaction values between vanadium oxides and Fe₂TiO₅ are obtained as $\mid L_{\mathrm{V}_{2}\mathrm{O}_{3}}\mid >\mid L_{\mathrm{V}_{2}\mathrm{O}_{4}} > \mid L_{\mathrm{V}_{2}\mathrm{O}_{5}}\mid$, indicating that vanadium with lower valence is preferable to be solid dissolved in Fe₂TiO₅. The results imply that insufficiently oxidized vanadium increases the vanadium content in the Fe₂TiO₅ phase during vanadium slag’s calcification roasting. Besides, experimental conditions optimization shows that higher experimental temperature, vanadium introduction as V₂O₃, and a high-purity argon atmosphere would lead to higher vanadium solubility in Fe₂TiO₅, and high temperature is beneficial for the release of vanadium from vanadium-containing Fe₂TiO₅ when dissociated in air.

The steel industry’s transition to hydrogen-based ironmaking necessitates a deeper understanding of magnetite ore reduction, a crucial yet underexplored pathway for decarbonization. This study systematically investigates the combined effects of particle size and gangue composition on hydrogen-based reduction behavior of four industrial magnetite ore concentrates with varying CaO and MgO contents. Thermogravimetric analysis at 973 K, interrupted reduction experiments, and post-reduction characterization steps are used to evaluate reduction extent and phase transformations across different particle size fractions and bulk ores. The finer fractions generally exhibit faster and more complete reduction. However, this trend is overridden by gangue effects in certain ores. Magnetite ores with MgO as gangue tend to form magnesio-wustite solid solution (Mg,Fe)O during reduction, resulting in dense microstructures that impede hydrogen diffusion and limit reduction progress. In contrast, magnetite ores with CaO as gangue facilitate the formation of intermediate calcium ferrites, which promote porous morphology and enhanced reducibility. Notably, even the finer particles of ore containing MgO show a lower reduction degree than the coarser particles of the ore containing CaO as gangue. This highlights the dominant role of gangue composition in governing reduction kinetics, intermediate phase formation and final product morphology. These findings contribute to the growing knowledge necessary to enable fossil-free ironmaking by emphasizing the importance of considering both granulometric characteristics and heterogeneity when evaluating magnetite ores for hydrogen-based reduction.

The comprehensive status of blast furnaces was one of the most important factors affecting their economy, quality, and longevity. The blast furnace comprehensive status had the nature of “black box,” and it was “unpredictable.” In this study, a blast furnace comprehensive status score and prediction method based on a cascade system and a combined model were proposed to address this issue. A dual cascade evaluation system was developed by integrating subjective and objective weighting methods. The analytic hierarchy process, coefficient of variation, entropy weight method, and impart combinatorial games were jointly employed to determine the optimal weight distribution across indicators. Categorized statuses (raw material, gas flow, furnace body, furnace cylinder, and iron–slag) were evaluated. Based on the five categories of the status data, the second cascade was applied to upgrade the quantitative evaluation of the comprehensive status. The weights of the different categories were 0.22, 0.15, 0.22, 0.21, and 0.20, respectively. According to the data analysis, the results of the comprehensive status score closely matched the on-site production logs. Based on the blast furnace smelting period, the maximal information coefficient method was applied to the 100 parameters that were most relevant to the comprehensive status. A combined prediction model for a comprehensive status score was designed using bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM) and categorical boosting (CatBoost). The test results indicated that the combined model reduced the mean absolute error by an average of 0.275 and increased the hit rate by an average of 5.65 percentage points compared to BiLSTM or CatBoost alone. When the error range was ±2.5, the combined model predicted a hit rate of 91.66% for the next hour’s comprehensive status score, and its high accuracy was deemed satisfactory for the field. SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) and regression fitting were applied to analyze the linear quantitative relationship between the key variables and the comprehensive status score. When the furnace bottom center temperature was increased by 10°C, the comprehensive status score increased by 0.44. This method contributes to a more precise management and control of the comprehensive status of the blast furnace on-site.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that reached their end-of-life (EoL) require recycling, rather than disposal, to recirculate valuable metals and protect the environment. This led us to investigate the extraction of metals from the cathodes of EoL lithium-titanate batteries using ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium (EDTA-2Na). In this work, an orthogonal array was used to design experiments and signal-to-noise calculations were used to define the optimal conditions, which were 0.50 mol/L EDTA-2Na, pH = 6, 75°C, 180 min, 2% pulp density, and 300 r/min, resulting in 97.96%, 94.79%, 96.45%, and 98.89% leaching efficiencies for Li, Ni, Co, and Mn, respectively. Statistically significant interactions between variables were then identified using Pearson’s correlation at the 95% confidence interval, and the pH and temperature were found to be significant. The extraction efficiency decreased as the pH increased, but increased as the temperature increased. Machine learning fitting using linear regression for multi-output prediction was unsatisfactory, whereas random forest regression (RFR) produced satisfactory results. Permutation importance was computed on the fitted RFR to determine feature importance, and confirmed that the pH and temperature were influential variables; however, the time and pulp density were also noted. As the fitted RFR failed to satisfactorily predict leaching efficiencies in additional validation experiments, we recommend increasing the number of experiments and using additional fitting models. An additional analysis that included the initial oxidation–reduction potential (optimal 33.3 mV) revealed this to be the most important variable, the effect of which largely overshadows those of all the other variables. Finally, an environmental assessment highlighted the benefits of the chelating extraction; however, the economic assessment indicated room for improvement.

Custom 465 (C465) is a martensitic stainless steel known for its high strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance, widely used in aerospace, automotive, and medical industries. However, limited work has been conducted on its additive manufacturing (AM) and no dedicated heat treatments have been developed for additively manufactured C465 to optimize its strength–ductility trade-off. In this work, the C465 was fabricated via laser powder bed fusion. The effect of hot isostatic pressing, solid solution, cryogenic treatment (−78.5°C), and aging on the composition homogenization, austenite-to-martensite transition, and Ni₃Ti precipitation were systemically investigated. The atom probe tomography analysis reveals that Mo atoms accumulate on Ni₃Ti precipitate surfaces and inhibits the Ni₃Ti growth, contributing to the enhanced strength of C465. The modified heat treatment for additively manufactured C465 reaches comparable tensile strength with the wrought counterpart, yielding an ultimate tensile strength of 1773 MPa, yield strength of 1686 MPa, and elongation of 6.5%. A yield strength calculation model was proposed and validated with measured strength under various heat treatments, providing valuable insight for heat treatment design towards diverse industrial applications.

An effective approach to enhance the surface degradation characteristics of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) type 420 stainless steel involves the incorporation of spherical cast WC/W₂C to create LPBF metal matrix composites (MMCs). However, the corrosion behavior of stainless steel and cast WC/W₂C varies inversely across different pH levels, and the phenomenon of pitting corrosion in LPBF MMCs under varying pH conditions remains insufficiently explored. In LPBF 420 + 5wt% WC/W₂C MMCs, pits form adjacent to cast WC/W₂C in acidic and neutral environments, attributed to the presence of chromium-rich carbides and galvanic coupling effects. The dissolution of the reinforced particles facilitates pit nucleation in alkaline conditions. Notably, in-situ reaction layers exhibit superior corrosion resistance to the matrix or the reinforced particles across all pH levels. The distinct corrosion mechanisms influence the pitting corrosion behavior, with the corrosion ranking based on critical pitting potential being neutral > alkaline > acidic, contrasting the observed kinetics of pit growth (alkaline > acidic > neutral).

A series of as-cast Si_xAl_0.43CoCrFeNi_2.1 (x = 0, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3) high-entropy alloys (HEAs) was successfully fabricated by vacuum-assisted melting. The phase constituents, microstructural features, and mechanical properties (including hardness, tensile behavior, and wear behavior) of alloys with various Si contents were evaluated. The results revealed that the addition of Si promoted the precipitation of a body-centered cubic 1 (BCC1) phase enriched in Al, Ni, and Si with a B2-ordered structure. Furthermore, the secondary BCC2 phase was enriched with Cr, Fe, and Si precipitates within the BCC1 matrix. Ultimately, a multiphase face-centered cubic (FCC)/(BCC1/BCC2) structure was formed. The microstructural evolution driven by Si addition significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of the Si_xAl_0.43CoCrFeNi_2.1 HEAs. As the Si content increased, the microhardness and tensile strength improved by approximately 42% and 55%, reaching 2.359 GPa and 785 MPa, respectively. The quantitative evaluation of the various strengthening mechanisms indicated that the intrinsic hardness of the FCC matrix and hardening due to BCC1/BCC2 precipitation dominated the overall microhardness. The comparison of the energy barriers indicates that BCC2 primarily strengthens the alloy through a shear mechanism rather than an Orowan bypass mechanism. Furthermore, with increasing Si content, reduced friction and wear, together with smoother worn surfaces, reflect a greatly enhanced wear resistance. After the optimal cold-rolling and 1 h annealing at 800°C, the Si_0.3Al_0.43CoCrFeNi_2.1 alloy showed 56% and 62% increases in microhardness and tensile strength, respectively, compared to the as-cast state, reaching 3.68 GPa and 1270 MPa. The enhanced mechanical properties are attributed to the synergistic effects of residual strain hardening by FCC ordering and L1₂/BCC precipitation strengthening.

The effects of direct aging (DA) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of TiB₂/AlSi7Mg alloys fabricated via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) were systematically investigated. DA significantly improves strength while maintaining satisfactory ductility. Optimal performance is obtained through under-aging (UA) at 150°C for 4 h, resulting in a yield strength of 361 MPa, tensile strength of 503 MPa, and elongation of 9.1% in the horizontal direction. DA does not substantially alter the grain size or cellular structure but promotes the formation of nanoprecipitates within the α-Al matrix. Specifically, UA induces dot-like and needle-like Si precipitates, whereas over-aging (OA) additionally generates short rod-like β′-Mg_1.8Si phases. The strengthening mechanism is attributed to the Hall–Petch effect associated with grain and cell boundaries, and the Orowan mechanism induced by nanoprecipitates. Work-hardening behavior is governed by interactions between dislocations and nanoprecipitates. The OA sample exhibits rapid saturation of work hardening due to a high initial hardening rate and dynamic recovery of dislocations, resulting in limited uniform elongation. In contrast, the UA sample demonstrates a more balanced work hardening response. These findings provide theoretical and experimental validation of DA as an effective post-processing approach aimed at enhancing the performance of LPBF Al–Si–Mg alloys in engineering applications.

The effect of thermal degradation on the welded hybrid joints of metal and polymer composites is insufficient, which seriously inhibits the engineering applications of the joints. In this study, robust hybrid joints of metal and polymer composites were fabricated by the combination of friction lap welding (FLW) and laser surface treatment for investigating the effect of accelerated aging on the joint properties. Results showed that the FLW hybrid joints without laser surface treatment exhibited 91% reduction in the tensile shear force (TSF) after 7 days of accelerated aging tests. In contrast, the FLW hybrid joints with suitable laser surface treatment exhibited only 26% reduction in TSF even after 35 days of accelerated aging tests. Fractures of the tensile specimens occurred across the composite plates rather than along the joint interface. The enhanced reliability of the hybrid joints was mainly attributed to (1) the formation of micromechanical interlocking between the polymer composites and aluminum alloy plate, and (2) the modification of the stress distribution along the joint interface.

The fabrication of one-dimensional metal/N-doped carbon materials has shown a promising prospect as efficient electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Herein, CoNi alloy nanoparticles anchored on N-doped carbon nanotubes (CoNi@NCNT) are prepared by a dual-template strategy, using polypyrrole (PPy) tubes and CoNi-based metal–organic framework as the precursors. The as-formed CoNi@NCNT catalyst displays a half-wave potential (0.83 V) as well as good durability under alkaline medium. The excellent electrocatalytic performance is ascribed to a synergistic coupling of hierarchically tubular structure, highly electronic conductivity, and abundantly alloy-type active sites. When the CoNi@NCNT catalyst is applied in zinc–air battery (ZAB), the device displays a stable charge–discharge cycling performance. The present work affords a useful approach to constructing alloy/nitrogen-incorporated carbonaceous materials as bifunctional electrocatalysts for high-performance ZABs.

The multifunctional characteristics of barium zinc vanadate (BaZnV₂O₇) nanoparticles (BZV NPs) were explored in this study, focusing on their photocatalytic activity, supercapacitor performance, and sensing abilities. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed that the crystallites were 40.3 nm in size, whereas ultraviolet visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy revealed an energy bandgap of 5.28 eV. Functional groups, elemental composition, and morphology were assessed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy, respectively. The photocatalytic efficiency of the BZV NPs was evaluated at various catalyst dosages, dye concentrations, and pH levels, for the degradation of acid black-52 (AB-52) dye under UV light. Cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge-discharge analyses were performed to determine the energy storage and cyclic stability of the BZV-NP-modified carbon paste electrode. In addition, a novel electrochemical sensor based on BZV was developed to accurately detect the concentration of biomolecules and chemical drugs. BZV nanoparticles exhibited remarkable photocatalytic dye degradation up to 80.4%, indicating their application in waste water treatment. The BZV-NP-modified carbon paste electrode exhibited a superior specific capacitance of 714.15 F·g⁻¹ with excellent cycling stability over 1000 cycles. The electrodes efficiently detected biomolecules such as ascorbic acid and uric acid, chemical drugs including paracetamol and ibuprofen, and heavy metals such as mercury, cobalt, and cadmium in the concentration range of 1–5 mM. The limit of detection (LOD) was measured for all analytes, and the electrode exhibited high sensitivity. These multifunctional properties render BZV promising material for energy storage and environmental monitoring applications.

The effect of heavy metals on the properties and hydration of blast furnace slag–cement composites (BFS-CC) remain unclear. In this study, two BFS-CC (denoted as DBFS-CC and WBFS-CC) were prepared by dry and wet grinding of BFS, respectively. The effect of Cu(II) on BFS-CC’s properties and hydration was investigated by adding representative copper contaminants (CuO, CuCl₂, and CuS) to the composites. Adding 1.0wt% CuO and 0.5wt% CuS increased the 3-d compressive strength of DBFS-CC by 14.9% and 5.7%, respectively, but suppressed the 3-d strength of WBFS-CC. This trend reversed at 28-d curing, where adding 1.5wt% CuO, 2.0wt% CuCl₂, and 1.5wt% CuS enhanced the compressive strength of WBFS-CC by 23.4%, 6.2%, and 13.6%, respectively, but adversely affected the strength of DBFS-CC. For 28-d hydration, adding CuCl₂ decreased the hydration degree of DBFS-CC but enhanced that of WBFS-CC. Adding CuO promoted the hydration degree of both composites, while adding CuS exhibited inhibitory effects. DBFS-CC immobilized CuCl₂ better due to a higher hydration degree, while WBFS-CC immobilized CuO and CuS better due to having finer unhydrated BFS particles and a denser matrix. This study not only focuses on the Cu(II) immobilization effect but also reveals the differential effects of Cu(II) species on the hydration process, providing novel insights into heavy metal interactions in BFS-CC systems and their safe disposal.

In this study, injectable bone graft putty samples were developed using fine and coarse melt-quenched 45S5 bioactive glass (BG) incorporated into a carrier system composed of glycerol and polyethylene glycol (PEG) with different average molecular weights. Selected putty samples were further incorporated with varying amounts of Denosumab (5wt%–10wt%) to investigate its influence on rheological behavior and flow properties using mathematical modeling. All PEG/glycerol/45S5-based putty samples exhibited viscoelastic behavior (storage modulus > loss modulus) and pseudoplastic behavior (n < 1), with viscosity values required for optimal flow remaining below 1000 Pa·s. Both viscosity and thixotropic area increased proportionally with higher BG content and smaller-sized BG particles. All putty samples showed more than 98% injectability through a 12G cannula, suggesting potential clinical suitability. However, injectability decreased with smaller cannulas, dropping to 34.7%–58.3% with a 19G cannula and further decreasing with a 23G cannula at higher BG contents. Incorporation of Denosumab preserved viscoelasticity and injectability but modified the flow behavior, shifting it from pseudoplastic to more Newtonian with higher Denosumab content, while also reducing viscosity and thixotropic area values. Among all tested samples, putty containing a lower amount of Denosumab and smaller-sized BG exhibited the most suitable combination of injectability and rheological features. All putty samples were well described by both the Power law and Herschel–Bulkley rheological models (coefficient of determination > 0.95). This study highlights the influence of Denosumab on flowability and rheological relationships and suggests potential improvements in bioactivity through a dual synergistic effect of BG and Denosumab in minimally invasive bone graft systems.