A review on the multi-scaled structures and mechanical/thermal properties of tool steels fabricated by laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing

Huajing Zong, Nan Kang, Zehao Qin, Mohamed El Mansori

International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy, and Materials ›› 2024, Vol. 31 ›› Issue (5) : 1048-1071. DOI: 10.1007/s12613-023-2731-5

A review on the multi-scaled structures and mechanical/thermal properties of tool steels fabricated by laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing

Author information +
History +

Abstract

The laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process can integrally form geometrically complex and high-performance metallic parts that have attracted much interest, especially in the molds industry. The appearance of the LPBF makes it possible to design and produce complex conformal cooling channel systems in molds. Thus, LPBF-processed tool steels have attracted more and more attention. The complex thermal history in the LPBF process makes the microstructural characteristics and properties different from those of conventional manufactured tool steels. This paper provides an overview of LPBF-processed tool steels by describing the physical phenomena, the microstructural characteristics, and the mechanical/thermal properties, including tensile properties, wear resistance, and thermal properties. The microstructural characteristics are presented through a multiscale perspective, ranging from densification, meso-structure, microstructure, substructure in grains, to nanoprecipitates. Finally, a summary of tool steels and their challenges and outlooks are introduced.

Keywords

additive manufacturing / laser powder bed fusion / tool steel / multi-scaled structure / mechanical properties / thermal properties

Cite this article

Download citation ▾
Huajing Zong, Nan Kang, Zehao Qin, Mohamed El Mansori. A review on the multi-scaled structures and mechanical/thermal properties of tool steels fabricated by laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy, and Materials, 2024, 31(5): 1048‒1071 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-023-2731-5

References

[1]
Narasimharaju SR, Zeng WH, See TL, et al.. A comprehensive review on laser powder bed fusion of steels: Processing, microstructure, defects and control methods, mechanical properties, current challenges and future trends. J. Manuf. Process., 2022, 75: 375,
CrossRef Google scholar
[2]
Y.W. Sun, J.L. Wang, M.L. Li, et al., Thermal and mechanical properties of selective laser melted and heat treated H13 hot work tool steel, Mater. Des., 224(2022), art. No. 111295.
[3]
E.A. Jägle, Z.D. Sheng, P. Kürnsteiner, S. Ocylok, A. Weisheit, and D. Raabe, Comparison of maraging steel micro- and nanostructure produced conventionally and by laser additive manufacturing, Materials, 10(2016), No. 1, art. No. 8.
[4]
DebRoy T, Wei HL, Zuback JS, et al.. Additive manufacturing of metallic components-Process, structure and properties. Prog. Mater. Sci., 2018, 92: 112,
CrossRef Google scholar
[5]
Fayazfar H, Salarian M, Rogalsky A, et al.. A critical review of powder-based additive manufacturing of ferrous alloys: Process parameters, microstructure and mechanical properties. Mater. Des., 2018, 144: 98,
CrossRef Google scholar
[6]
S. Feng, A.M. Kamat, and Y. Pei, Design and fabrication of conformal cooling channels in molds: Review and progress updates, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 171(2021), art. No. 121082.
[7]
P.S. Cook and A.B. Murphy, Simulation of melt pool behaviour during additive manufacturing: Underlying physics and progress, Addit. Manuf., 31(2020), art. No. 100909.
[8]
P. Bajaj, A. Hariharan, A. Kini, P. Kürnsteiner, D. Raabe, and E.A. Jägle, Steels in additive manufacturing: A review of their microstructure and properties, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 772(2020), art. No. 138633.
[9]
E.B. Fonseca, A.H.G. Gabriel, L.C. Araújo, P.L.L. Santos, K.N. Campo, and E.S.N. Lopes, Assessment of laser power and scan speed influence on microstructural features and consolidation of AISI H13 tool steel processed by additive manufacturing, Addit. Manuf., 34(2020), art. No. 101250.
[10]
Wang JT, Liu SP, Fang YP, He ZR. A short review on selective laser melting of H13 steel. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2020, 108(7): 2453,
CrossRef Google scholar
[11]
Q.Y. Tan, Y. Yin, F. Wang, et al., Rationalization of brittleness and anisotropic mechanical properties of H13 steel fabricated by selective laser melting, Scripta Mater., 214(2022), art. No. 114645.
[12]
Guo LL, Zhang LN, Andersson J, Ojo O. Additive manufacturing of 18% nickel maraging steels: Defect, structure and mechanical properties: A review. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2022, 120: 227,
CrossRef Google scholar
[13]
Tan CL, Zhou KS, Ma WY, Zhang PP, Liu M, Kuang TC. Microstructural evolution, nanoprecipitation behavior and mechanical properties of selective laser melted high-performance grade 300 maraging steel. Mater. Des., 2017, 134: 23,
CrossRef Google scholar
[14]
Yin Y, Tan QY, Bermingham M, Mo N, Zhang JQ, Zhang MX. Laser additive manufacturing of steels. Int. Mater. Rev., 2022, 67(5): 487,
CrossRef Google scholar
[15]
K. Chadha, Y. Tian, K. Nyamuchiwa, J. Spray, and C. Aranas Jr, Austenite transformation during deformation of additively manufactured H13 tool steel, Mater. Today Commun., 33(2022), art. No. 104332.
[16]
Markl M, Körner C. Multiscale modeling of powder bed-based additive manufacturing. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res., 2016, 46: 93,
CrossRef Google scholar
[17]
Zhang ZD, Huang YZ, Kasinathan AR, et al.. 3-Dimensional heat transfer modeling for laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing with volumetric heat sources based on varied thermal conductivity and absorptivity. Opt. Laser Technol., 2019, 109: 297,
CrossRef Google scholar
[18]
Cheloni JPM, Fonseca EB, Gabriel AHG, Lopes SN. The transient temperature field and microstructural evolution of additively manufactured AISI H13 steel supported by finite element analysis. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2022, 19: 4583,
CrossRef Google scholar
[19]
M. Bayat, W. Dong, J. Thorborg, A.C. To, and J.H. Hattel, A review of multi-scale and multi-physics simulations of metal additive manufacturing processes with focus on modeling strategies, Addit. Manuf., 47(2021), art. No. 102278.
[20]
B.C. Liu, R. Wildman, C. Tuck, I. Ashcroft, and R. Hague, Investigaztion the effect of particle size distribution on processing parameters optimisation in selective laser melting process, [in] 2011 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Austin, 2011.
[21]
Tan J, Wong WLE, Dalgarno K. An overview of powder granulometry on feedstock and part performance in the selective laser melting process. Addit. Manuf., 2017, 18: 228
[22]
Liu Y, Zhang J, Pang ZC. Numerical and experimental investigation into the subsequent thermal cycling during selective laser melting of multi-layer 316L stainless steel. Opt. Laser Technol., 2018, 98: 23,
CrossRef Google scholar
[23]
Mukherjee T, Wei HL, De A, DebRoy T. Heat and fluid flow in additive manufacturing—Part I: Modeling of powder bed fusion. Comput. Mater. Sci., 2018, 150: 304,
CrossRef Google scholar
[24]
T.N. Le and Y.L. Lo, Effects of sulfur concentration and Marangoni convection on melt-pool formation in transition mode of selective laser melting process, Mater. Des., 179(2019), art. No. 107866.
[25]
Xiao XF, Lu C, Fu YS, Ye XJ, Song LJ. . Progress on Experimental Study of Melt Pool Flow Dynamics in Laser Material Processing, 2021 London IntechOpen,
CrossRef Google scholar
[26]
Khairallah SA, Anderson AT, Rubenchik AM, King WE. Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: Physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter, and denudation zones. Acta Mater., 2016, 108: 36,
CrossRef Google scholar
[27]
Zinovieva O, Zinoviev A, Ploshikhin V. Three-dimensional modeling of the microstructure evolution during metal additive manufacturing. Comput. Mater. Sci., 2018, 141: 207,
CrossRef Google scholar
[28]
A.R. Dezfoli, W.S. Hwang, W.C. Huang, and T.W. Tsai, Determination and controlling of grain structure of metals after laser incidence: Theoretical approach, Sci. Rep., 7(2017), art. No. 41527.
[29]
P. Ninpetch, P. Kowitwarangkul, S. Mahathanabodee, P. Chalermkarnnon, and P. Rattanadecho, Computational investigation of thermal behavior and molten metal flow with moving laser heat source for selective laser melting process, Case Stud. Therm. Eng., 24(2021), art. No. 100860.
[30]
J.H. Li, X.L. Zhou, M. Brochu, N. Provatas, and Y.F. Zhao, Solidification microstructure simulation of Ti–6Al–4V in metal additive manufacturing: A review, Addit. Manuf., 31(2020), art. No. 100989.
[31]
Lian YP, Lin S, Yan WT, Liu WK, Wagner GJ. A parallelized three-dimensional cellular automaton model for grain growth during additive manufacturing. Comput. Mech., 2018, 61(5): 543,
CrossRef Google scholar
[32]
Zhang Y, Zhang J. Modeling of solidification microstructure evolution in laser powder bed fusion fabricated 316L stainless steel using combined computational fluid dynamics and cellular automata. Addit. Manuf., 2019, 28: 750
[33]
Kottman MA. . Additive Manufacturing of Maraging 250 Steels for the Rejuvenation and Repurposing of Die Casting Tooling, 2015 Cleveland Case Western Reserve University
[34]
P. Stoll, A. Spierings, K. Wegener, S. Polster, and M. Gebauer, SLM processing of 14Ni (200 grade) maraging steel, [in] Proceedings of the 3rd Fraunhofer Direct Digital Manufacturing Conference, Berlin, 2016, p. 6.
[35]
Kürnsteiner P, Wilms MB, Weisheit A, Barriobero-Vila P, Jägle EA, Raabe D. Massive nanoprecipitation in an Fe–19Ni–xAl maraging steel triggered by the intrinsic heat treatment during laser metal deposition. Acta Mater., 2017, 129: 52,
CrossRef Google scholar
[36]
Liu ZH, Zhang DQ, Chua CK, Leong KF. Crystal structure analysis of M2 high speed steel parts produced by selective laser melting. Mater. Charact., 2013, 84: 72,
CrossRef Google scholar
[37]
Saewe J, Gayer C, Vogelpoth A, Schleifenbaum JH. Feasability investigation for laser powder bed fusion of high-speed steel AISI M50 with base preheating system. BHM Berg Hüttenmänn. Monatsh., 2019, 164(3): 101,
CrossRef Google scholar
[38]
Casati R, Coduri M, Lecis N, Andrianopoli C, Vedani M. Microstructure and mechanical behavior of hot-work tool steels processed by selective laser melting. Mater. Charact., 2018, 137: 50,
CrossRef Google scholar
[39]
T. Pinomaa, I. Yashchuk, M. Lindroos, T. Andersson, N. Provatas, and A. Laukkanen, Process-structure-properties-performance modeling for selective laser melting, Metals, 9(2019), No. 11, art. No. 1138.
[40]
Yan JJ, Zheng DL, Li HX, et al.. Selective laser melting of H13: Microstructure and residual stress. J. Mater. Sci., 2017, 52(20): 12476,
CrossRef Google scholar
[41]
M. Narvan, K.S. Al-Rubaie, and M. Elbestawi, Process–structure–property relationships of AISI H13 tool steel processed with selective laser melting, Materials, 12(2019), No. 14, art. No. 2284.
[42]
R.A. Savrai, D.V. Toporova, and T.M. Bykova, Improving the quality of AISI H13 tool steel produced by selective laser melting, Opt. Laser Technol., 152(2022), art. No. 108128.
[43]
Krell J, Röttger A, Geenen K, Theisen W. General investigations on processing tool steel X40CrMoV5-1 with selective laser melting. J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2018, 255: 679,
CrossRef Google scholar
[44]
Mertens R, Vrancken B, Holmstock N, Kinds Y, Kruth JP, Van Humbeeck J. Influence of powder bed preheating on microstructure and mechanical properties of H13 tool steel SLM parts. Phys. Procedia, 2016, 83: 882,
CrossRef Google scholar
[45]
Deirmina F, Peghini N, AlMangour B, Grzesiak D, Pellizzari M. Heat treatment and properties of a hot work tool steel fabricated by additive manufacturing. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2019, 753: 109,
CrossRef Google scholar
[46]
F. Lei, T. Wen, F.P. Yang, et al., Microstructures and mechanical properties of H13 tool steel fabricated by selective laser melting, Materials, 15(2022), No. 7, art. No. 2686.
[47]
Chen CJ, Yan K, Qin LL, et al.. Effect of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of laser additively Manufactured AISI H13 tool steel. J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2017, 26(11): 5577,
CrossRef Google scholar
[48]
Liu C, Zhao ZB, Northwood DO, Liu YX. A new empirical formula for the calculation of MS temperatures in pure iron and super-low carbon alloy steels. J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2001, 113(1–3): 556,
CrossRef Google scholar
[49]
Holzweissig MJ, Taube A, Brenne F, Schaper M, Niendorf T. Microstructural characterization and mechanical performance of hot work tool steel processed by selective laser melting. Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 2015, 46(2): 545,
CrossRef Google scholar
[50]
Panahi N, Åsberg M, Oikonomou C, Krakhmalev P. Effect of preheating temperature on the porosity and microstructure of martensitic hot work tool steel manufactured with L-PBF. Procedia CIRP, 2022, 111: 166,
CrossRef Google scholar
[51]
Ren B, Lu DH, Zhou R, Li ZH, Guan JR. Preparation and mechanical properties of selective laser melted H13 steel. J. Mater. Res., 2019, 34(8): 1415,
CrossRef Google scholar
[52]
G. Huang, K.W. Wei, and X.Y. Zeng, Microstructure and mechanical properties of H13 tool steel fabricated by high power laser powder bed fusion, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 858(2022), art. No. 144154.
[53]
Q.Y. Tan, H.W. Chang, Y. Yin, et al., Simultaneous enhancements of strength and ductility of a selective laser melted H13 steel through inoculation treatment, Scripta Mater., 219(2022), art. No. 114874.
[54]
Wang YM, Voisin T, McKeown JT, et al.. Additively manufactured hierarchical stainless steels with high strength and ductility. Nat. Mater., 2018, 17(1): 63,
CrossRef Google scholar
[55]
Prashanth K, Eckert J. Formation of metastable cellular microstructures in selective laser melted alloys. J. Alloys Compd., 2016, 707: 27,
CrossRef Google scholar
[56]
J. Lee, J. Choe, J. Park, et al., Microstructural effects on the tensile and fracture behavior of selective laser melted H13 tool steel under varying conditions, Mater. Charact., 155(2019), art. No. 109817.
[57]
Wen T, Yang FP, Wang JY, Yang HL, Fu JW, Ji SX. Ultrastrong and ductile synergy of additively manufactured H13 steel by tuning cellular structure and nano-carbides through tempering treatment. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2023, 22: 157,
CrossRef Google scholar
[58]
Wang M, Li W, Wu Y, et al.. High-temperature properties and microstructural stability of the AISI H13 hot-work tool steel processed by selective laser melting. Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 2019, 50(1): 531,
CrossRef Google scholar
[59]
Han LX, Wang Y, Liu S, et al.. Effect of cryogenic treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of selected laser melted H13 steel. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2022, 21: 5056,
CrossRef Google scholar
[60]
A.F. de Souza, K.S. Al-Rubaie, S. Marques, B. Zluhan, and E.C. Santos, Effect of laser speed, layer thickness, and part position on the mechanical properties of maraging 300 parts manufactured by selective laser melting, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 767(2019), art. No. 138425.
[61]
Suzuki A, Nishida R, Takata N, Kobashi M, Kato M. Design of laser parameters for selectively laser melted maraging steel based on deposited energy density. Addit. Manuf., 2019, 28: 160
[62]
J. Song, Q. Tang, Q.X. Feng, et al., Effect of remelting processes on the microstructure and mechanical behaviours of 18Ni-300 maraging steel manufactured by selective laser melting, Mater. Charact., 184(2022), art. No. 111648.
[63]
Ong JK, Tan Q, Silva A, et al.. Effect of process parameters and build orientations on the mechanical properties of maraging steel (18Ni-300) parts printed by selective laser melting. Mater. Today Proc., 2022, 70: 438,
CrossRef Google scholar
[64]
N. Takata, R. Nishida, A. Suzuki, M. Kobashi, and M. Kato, Crystallographic features of microstructure in maraging steel fabricated by selective laser melting, Metals, 8(2018), No. 6, art. No. 440.
[65]
Mutua J, Nakata S, Onda T, Chen ZC. Optimization of selective laser melting parameters and influence of post heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of maraging steel. Mater. Des., 2018, 139: 486,
CrossRef Google scholar
[66]
Suryawanshi J, Prashanth KG, Ramamurty U. Tensile, fracture, and fatigue crack growth properties of a 3D printed maraging steel through selective laser melting. J. Alloys Compd., 2017, 725: 355,
CrossRef Google scholar
[67]
F. Conde, J. Escobar, J. Oliveira, A. Jardini, W.B. Filho, and J. Avila, Austenite reversion kinetics and stability during tempering of an additively manufactured maraging 300 steel, Addit. Manuf., 29(2019), art. No. 100804.
[68]
J. Song, Q, Tang, H. Chen, et al., Laser powder bed fusion of high-strength maraging steel with concurrently enhanced strength and ductility after heat treatments, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 854(2022), art. No. 143818.
[69]
Z. Mao, X. Lu, H. Yang, X. Niu, L. Zhang, and X. Xie, Processing optimization, microstructure, mechanical properties and nanoprecipitation behavior of 18Ni300 maraging steel in selective laser melting, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 830(2022), art. No. 142334.
[70]
Bai YC, Yang YQ, Wang D, Zhang MK. Influence mechanism of parameters process and mechanical properties evolution mechanism of maraging steel 300 by selective laser melting. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2017, 703: 116,
CrossRef Google scholar
[71]
Bodziak S, Al-Rubaie KS, Valentina LD, et al.. Precipitation in 300 grade maraging steel built by selective laser melting: Aging at 510°C for 2 h. Mater. Charact., 2019, 151: 73,
CrossRef Google scholar
[72]
Yin S, Chen CY, Yan XC, et al.. The influence of aging temperature and aging time on the mechanical and tribological properties of selective laser melted maraging 18Ni-300 steel. Addit. Manuf., 2018, 22: 592
[73]
Tan CL, Zhou KS, Kuang M, Ma WY, Kuang TC. Microstructural characterization and properties of selective laser melted maraging steel with different build directions. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater., 2018, 19(1): 746,
CrossRef Google scholar
[74]
Jägle EA, Choi PP, Van Humbeeck J, Raabe D. Precipitation and austenite reversion behavior of a maraging steel produced by selective laser melting. J. Mater. Res., 2014, 29(17): 2072,
CrossRef Google scholar
[75]
M. Katancik, S. Mirzababaei, M. Ghayoor, and S. Pasebani, Selective laser melting and tempering of H13 tool steel for rapid tooling applications, J. Alloys Compd., 849(2020), art. No. 156319.
[76]
M.W. Yuan, Y. Cao, S. Karamchedu, et al., Characteristics of a modified H13 hot-work tool steel fabricated by means of laser beam powder bed fusion, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 831(2022), art. No. 142322.
[77]
Åsberg M, Fredriksson G, Hatami S, Fredriksson W, Krakhmalev P. Influence of post treatment on microstructure, porosity and mechanical properties of additive manufactured H13 tool steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2019, 742: 584,
CrossRef Google scholar
[78]
Hermann Becker T, Dimitrov D. The achievable mechanical properties of SLM produced Maraging steel 300 components. Rapid Prototyp. J., 2016, 22(3): 487,
CrossRef Google scholar
[79]
Z.J. Zhao, C.F. Dong, D.C. Kong, et al., Influence of pore defects on the mechanical property and corrosion behavior of SLM 18Ni300 maraging steel, Mater. Charact., 182(2021), art. No. 111514.
[80]
Wu W, Wang X, Wang Q, et al.. Microstructure and mechanical properties of maraging 18Ni-300 steel obtained by powder bed based selective laser melting process. Rapid Prototyping J., 2020, 26(8): 1379,
CrossRef Google scholar
[81]
Kempen K, Yasa E, Thijs L, Kruth JP, Van Humbeeck J. Microstructure and mechanical properties of selective laser melted 18Ni-300 steel. Phys. Procedia, 2011, 12: 255,
CrossRef Google scholar
[82]
Casati R, Lemke J, Tuissi A, Vedani M. Aging behaviour and mechanical performance of 18-Ni 300 steel processed by selective laser melting. Metals, 2016, 6(9): 218,
CrossRef Google scholar
[83]
Mooney B, Kourousis KI, Raghavendra R. Plastic anisotropy of additively manufactured maraging steel: Influence of the build orientation and heat treatments. Addit. Manuf., 2019, 25: 19
[84]
Y.J. Wang, Z. Jia, J.J. Ji, B.L. Wei, Y.B. Heng, and D.X. Liu, Determining the wear behavior of H13 steel die during the extrusion process of pure nickel, Eng. Fail. Anal., 134(2022), art. No. 106053.
[85]
Wang SQ, Wei MX, Wang F, Zhao YT. Transition of elevated-temperature wear mechanisms and the oxidative delamination wear in hot-working die steels. Tribol. Int., 2010, 43(3): 577,
CrossRef Google scholar
[86]
Bahrami A, Anijdan SHM, Golozar MA, Shamanian M, Varahram N. Effects of conventional heat treatment on wear resistance of AISI H13 tool steel. Wear, 2005, 258(5–6): 846,
CrossRef Google scholar
[87]
Li S, Wu XC, Chen SH, Li JW. Wear resistance of H13 and a new hot-work die steel at high temperature. J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2016, 25(7): 2993,
CrossRef Google scholar
[88]
E. Guenther, M. Kahlert, M. Vollmer, T. Niendorf, and C. Greiner, Tribological performance of additively manufactured AISI H13 steel in different surface conditions, Materials, 14(2021), No. 4, art. No. 928.
[89]
Zhang ZF, Zhang LC, Mai YW. Particle effects on friction and wear of aluminium matrix composites. J. Mater. Sci., 1995, 30(23): 5999,
CrossRef Google scholar
[90]
D.F.S. Ferreira, J.S. Vieira, S.P. Rodrigues, G. Miranda, F.J. Oliveira, and J.M. Oliveira, Dry sliding wear and mechanical behaviour of selective laser melting processed 18Ni300 and H13 steels for moulds, Wear, 488–489(2022), art. No. 204179.
[91]
M. Godec, B. Podgornik, A. Kocijan, Č. Donik, and D.A.S. Balantič, Use of plasma nitriding to improve the wear and corrosion resistance of 18Ni-300 maraging steel manufactured by selective laser melting, Sci. Rep., 11(2021), No. 1, art. No. 3277.
[92]
Tonolini P, Marchini L, Montesano L, Gelfi M, Pola A. Wear and corrosion behavior of 18Ni-300 maraging steel produced by laser-based powder bed fusion and conventional route. Procedia Struct. Integr., 2022, 42: 821,
CrossRef Google scholar
[93]
B. Podgornik, M. Šinko, and M. Godec, Dependence of the wear resistance of additive-manufactured maraging steel on the build direction and heat treatment, Addit. Manuf., 46(2021), art. No. 102123.
[94]
K. Sun, W.X. Peng, B.H. Wei, L.L. Yang, and L. Fang, Friction and wear characteristics of 18Ni(300) maraging steel under high-speed dry sliding conditions, Materials, 13(2020), No. 7, art. No. 1485.
[95]
K.C. Bae, D. Kim, Y.H. Kim, et al., Effect of heat treatment, building direction, and sliding velocity on wear behavior of selectively laser-melted maraging 18Ni-300 steel against bearing steel, Wear, 482–483(2021), art. No. 203962.
[96]
J. Džugan, K. Halmešová, M. Ackermann, M. Koukolíková, and Z. Trojanová, Thermo-physical properties investigation in relation to deposition orientation for SLM deposited H13 steel, Thermochim. Acta, 683(2020), art. No. 178479.
[97]
Y.C. Bai, C.L. Zhao, J.Y. Zhang, and H. Wang, Abnormal thermal expansion behaviour and phase transition of laser powder bed fusion maraging steel with different thermal histories during continuous heating, Addit. Manuf., 53(2022), art. No. 102712.
[98]
A.E.W. Jarfors, T. Matsushita, D. Siafakas, and R. Stolt, On the nature of the anisotropy of maraging steel (1.2709) in additive manufacturing through powder bed laser-based fusion processing, Mater. Des., 204(2021), art. No. 109608.
[99]
Bai YC, Lee YJ, Li CJ, Wang H. Densification behavior and influence of building direction on high anisotropy in selective laser melting of high-strength 18Ni–Co–Mo–Ti maraging steel. Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2020, 51(11): 5861,
CrossRef Google scholar

Accesses

Citations

Detail

Sections
Recommended

/