Why Do People Experience Loneliness While Using Social Media?

Abstract

The Cognitive Discrepancy Model of Loneliness (CDML) postulates that people experience loneliness when they perceive a difference between their desired (or expected) and actual levels of social relationships. Although the model has been widely cited, only a few empirical studies support this statement in Face-to-Face context. In the present study, we re-evaluate and expand the CDML in the digital context in two representative East Asian countries, Japan and China. The results partially support the idea of CDML that besides quantity and quality of SNS social activities, the self-defined and socially defined cognitive discrepancies are also potential predictors of feelings of satisfaction and loneliness, but the patterns may differ depending on communication purposes and cultural orientations.

Keywords

Social media / online social activity / cognitive discrepancy / loneliness / cultural variation

References

[1] Abeele, Mariek Vanden & Roe, Keith. (2011). New life, old friends: A cross—cultural comparison of the use of communication technologies in the social life of college freshmen. Young, 19(2), 219-240.

[2] Anderson, B.; Fagan, P.; Woodnutt, T. & Chamorro—Premuzic, T. (2012). Facebook psychology: Popular questions answered by research. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 23-37.

[3] Archibald, F. S.; Bartholomew, K. & Marx, R. (1995). Loneliness in early adolescence: A test of the cognitive discrepancy model of loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(3), 296-301.

[4] Barker, Valerie & Ota, Hiroshi. (2011). Mixi diary versus Facebook photos: Social networking site use among Japanese and Caucasian American females. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 40(1), 39-63.

[5] Burke, Moira & Kraut, Robert. (2013). Using Facebook after losing a job: Differential benefits of strong and weak ties. Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 1419-1430.

[6] Burke, Moira & Kraut, Robert. (2016). The relationship between Facebook use and well—being depends on communication type and tie strength. Journal of Computer—Mediated Communication, 21(4), 265-281.

[7] Burke, Moira; Kraut, Robert & Marlow, Cameron. (2011). Social capital on Facebook: Differentiating uses and users. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 571-580.

[8] Choi, S. M.; Chu, S. C. & Kim, Y. (2012). Culture—laden social engagement: A comparative study of social relationships in social networking sites among American, Chinese and Korean users. In K. St. Amant & S. Kelsey (Eds.), Computer—Mediated Communication across Cultures: International Interactions in Online Environments (pp. 1-16). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.

[9] Chu, Shu—Chuan & Choi, Sejung Marina. (2010). Social capital and self—presentation on social networking sites: A comparative study of Chinese and American young generations. Chinese Journal of Communication, 3(4), 402-420.

[10] Cutrona, Carolyn E. (1982). Transition to college: Loneliness and the process of social adjustment. In L. A. Peplau, & D. Pearlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research, and therapy (pp. 291-309). New York: Wiley Interscience.

[11] de Jong Gierveld, J. (1998). A review of loneliness: Concept and definitions, determinants and consequences. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 8(1), 73-80.

[12] Dien, Dora Shu—fang. (1999). Chinese authority—directed orientation and Japanese peer—group orientation: Questioning the notion of collectivism. Review of General Psychology, 3(4), 372-385.

[13] Dunbar, Robin IM. (1992). Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 22(6), 469-493.

[14] Ellison, Nicole B. & Boyd, Danah M.. (2013). Sociality through Social Network Sites. In Dutton, W. H. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of internet studies (pp. 151-172). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[15] Ellison, N. B.; Steinfield, C. & Lampe, C. (2011). Connection strategies: Social capital implications of Facebook—enabled communication practices. New Media & Society, 13(6), 873-892.

[16] Fees, B. S.; Martin, P. & Poon, L. W. (1999). A model of loneliness in older adults. The Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 54(4), 231-239.

[17] Gonçalves, B.; Perra, N. & Vespignani, A. (2011). Modeling users‘ activity on Twitter networks: Validation of Dunbar‘s number. PLoSONE, 6(8), e22656.

[18] Huang, Chiungjung. (2010). Internet use and psychological well—being: A meta—analysis. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(3), 241-249.

[19] Jackson, Linda A. & Wang, Jin—Liang. (2013). Cultural differences in social networking site use: A comparative study of China and the United States. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 910-921.

[20] Kim, Y.; Sohn, D. & Choi, S. M. (2011). Cultural difference in motivations for using social network sites: A comparative study of American and Korean college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(1), 365-372.

[21] Kraut, Robert & Burke, Moira. (2015). Internet use and psychological well—being: Effects of activity and audience. Communications of the ACM, 58(12), 94-100.

[22] Kraut, R.; Kiesler, S.; Boneva, B.; Cummings, J.; Helgeson, V. & Crawford, A. (2002). Internet paradox revisited. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 49-74.

[23] Kraut, R.; Patterson, M.; Lundmark, V.; Kiesler, S.; Mukophadhyay, T. & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well—being? American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017-1031.

[24] Marangoni, Carol & Ickes, William. (1989). Loneliness: A theoretical review with implications for measurement. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 6(1), 93-128.

[25] Margulis, S. T.; Derlega, V. J. & Winstead, B. A. (1984). Implications of social psychological concepts for a theory of loneliness. In V. J. Derlega (Ed.), Communication, intimacy, and close relationships (pp. 133-160). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

[26] Meng, J.; Martinez, L.; Holmstrom, A.; Chung, M. & Cox, J. (2017). Research on social networking sites and social support from 2004 to 2015: A narrative review and directions for future research. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20(1), 44-51.

[27] Modayil, M. V.; Thompson, A. H.; Varnhagen, S. & Wilson, D. R. (2003). Internet users‘ prior psychological and social difficulties. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 6(6), 585-590.

[28] Morling, Beth & Marika Lamoreaux. (2008). Measuring culture outside the head: A meta—analysis of individualism—collectivism in cultural products. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12(3), 199-221.

[29] Paloutzian, R. F. & Janigan, A. S. (1987). Models and methods in loneliness research: Their status and direction. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 2, 31-36.

[30] Peplau, L. A.; Miceli, M. & Morash, B. (1982). Loneliness and self—evaluation. In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 135-151). New York: Wiley Interscience.

[31] Perlman, Daniel & Peplau, L. Anne. (1981). Toward a social psychology of loneliness. In R. Gilmour & S. Duck (Eds.), Personal relationships: 3. Relationships in disorder (pp. 31-56). London: Academic Press.

[32] Perlman, D. & Peplau, L. A. (1982). Theoretical approaches to loneliness. In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research, and therapy (pp. 123-134). New York: Wiley Interscience.

[33] Rains, Stephen A. & Young, Valerie. (2009). A meta—analysis of research on formal computer—mediated support groups: Examining group characteristics and health outcomes. Human Communication Research, 35(3), 309-336.

[34] Russell, Daniel. (1982). The measurement of loneliness. In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research, and therapy (pp. 81-104). New York: Wiley Interscience.

[35] Russell, Daniel. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1), 20-40.

[36] Russell, D. W.; Cutrona, C. E.; McRae, C. & Gomez, M. (2012). Is loneliness the same as being alone? The Journal of Psychology, 146(1—2), 7-22.

[37] Russell, D.; Steffen, M. & Salih, F. A. (1981, August). Testing a cognitive model of loneliness. Paper presented at the symposium New Directions in Loneliness Research at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association in Los Angeles, California.

[38] Shaver, Phillip & Buhrmester, Duane. (1983). Loneliness, sex—role orientation and group life: A social needs perspective. In Paulus P.B. (Ed.), Basic Group Processes (pp. 259-288). New York, NY: Springer.

[39] Shaw, Lindsay H. & Gant, Larry M.. (2002). Users divided? Exploring the gender gap in Internet use. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 5(6), 517-527.

[40] Steinfield, C.; Ellison, N. B. & Lampe, C. (2008). Social capital, self—esteem, and use of online social network sites: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(6), 434-445.

[41] Weiss, Robert S. (1987). Reflections on the present state of loneliness research. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 2(2), 1.

[42] Wu, D. D. & Li, C. (2016). Sociolinguistic approaches for intercultural new media studies. Intercultural Communication Studies, 25(2), 14-31.

[43] Xu, W.; Takai, J. & Liu, L. (2018). Constructing the Social Media Uses and Gratifications Scale on Japanese and Chinese samples: Comparing content to Western conceived scales. Intercultural Communication Studies, 27(1), 125-144.