The Effects of Language Competence and Self-regulatory Focus on Intercultural Communication Apprehension: Comparing Japan, China and America

Abstract

This study examined the intercultural communication apprehension of university students in Japan and China, and its relationship with language competence, and self-regulation, comparing the two to those in America. A total of 614 students from Japan (N=216), China (N=215), and America (N=183) completed the questionnaire online. Our findings demonstrated that Japanese and Chinese students were higher in intercultural communication apprehension and prevention focus, while Americans were higher in promotion focus. As predicted, apart from the English language ability, self-regulatory focus explained the intercultural communication anxiety of Japanese and Chinese students. The impact of language competence on intercultural communication apprehension was mediated by promotion focus. The findings uncovered some important motivational factors with potential for mitigating the intercultural communication apprehension of students in East Asian cultures.

Keywords

Promotion focus / prevention focus / language competence / intercultural communication apprehension

References

[1] Aaker, Jennifer L. & Lee, Angela Y. (2001). “I” seek pleasures and “we” avoid pains: The role of self—regulatory goals in information processing and persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(1), 33-49. https://doi.org/10.1086/321946

[2] Alici, Nilgun K. & Kaya, Yunus. (2022). The mediating role of intercultural communication apprehension in the relationship between ethnocentrism and attitude towards asylum—seekers of nursing students. Nurse Education Today, 119, 105579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2022.105579

[3] Amoah, Seth & Yeboah, Joyce. (2021). The speaking difficulties of Chinese EFL learners and their motivation towards speaking the English language. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 17(1), 56-69. https://doi.org/10.52462/jlls.4

[4] Ananda, Novel & Hastini, Hastini. (2023). A study on self—confidence impact of ELF students’ speaking. Journal of General Education and Humanities, 2(3), 237-246. https://doi.org/10.58421/gehu.v2i3.158

[5] Ansari, Mohammad S. (2015). Speaking anxiety in ESL/EFL classrooms: A holistic approach and practical study. International Journal of Education Investigation, 2(4), 38-46.

[6] Bhargava, Megha & Panicker, Aneesya. (2021). Linking intercultural communication, intercultural communication apprehension and intercultural sensitivity with ethnocentrism. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 12(7), 2203-2208. https://doi.org/10.17762/turcomat.v12i7.3397

[7] Bowlby, John. (1973). Attachment and loss: Separation, anxiety and anger . Vol. 2. London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho—analysis, 1-429.

[8] Campero—Oliart, Alejandro R.; Lovelace, Christopher T. & Levitan, Lindsey C. (2020). Contexts of communication apprehension and their relation to self—esteem. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 25(1), 42-53. https://doi.org/10.24839/2325—7342.JN25.1.42

[9] Chapman, Damon E. & Clenton, Jon. (2016). Additional assessment of student development in overseas programs: Competency, sensitivity and communication apprehension in intercultural interactions. Bulletin of Hijiyama University, (23), 35-61. http://id.nii.ac.jp/1819/00000112

[10] Chen, Guo—Ming. (2010). The impact of intercultural sensitivity on ethnocentrism and intercultural communication apprehension. Intercultural Communication Studies, 19(1), 1-9. https://web.uri.edu/iaics/files/01Guo—MingChen.pdf

[11] Coupland, Justine; Coupland, Nikolas & Giles, Howard. (1991). Accommodation theory. Communication, context and consequences. Contexts Accommodation, 1-68.

[12] DeVellis, Robert F. & Thorpe, Carolyn T. (2021). Scale development: Theory and applications. Sage publications.

[13] Dong, Yiran. (2018). The impact of English language study on intercultural sensitivity, ethnocentrism, and intercultural communication apprehension among Chinese students [Master's thesis, Bryant University].Bryant Digital Repository. https://digitalcommons.bryant.edu/macomm/3/

[14] Dwyer, Karen Kangas & Davidson, Marlina M. (2012). Is public speaking really more feared than death?. Communication Research Reports, 29(2), 99-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2012.667772

[15] Education First . (2022). EF English proficiency index: A ranking of 111 countries and regions by English skills. https://www.ef.com/assetscdn/WIBIwq6RdJvcD9bc8RMd/cefcom—epi—site/reports/2022/ef—epi—2022—english.pdf

[16] Gennaka, Yuki. (2021). “LikesSome cat from Japan”: Sukita Masayoshi’s photographs of David Bowie as Japan’s first appearance in the history of rock music. Music in the Making of Modern Japan: Essays on Reception, Transformation and Cultural Flows, 123-144.

[17] Heine, Steven J. & Ruby, Matthew B. (2010). Cultural psychology. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 1(2), 254-266. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.7

[18] Higgins, E. Tory. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1280-1300. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003—066X.52.12.1280

[19] Higgins, E. Tory. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 1-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065—2601(08)60381—0

[20] Higgins, E. Tory; Friedman, Ronald S.; Harlow, Robert E.; Idson, Lorraine Chen; Ayduk, Ozlem N. & Taylor, Amy. (2001). Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success: Promotion pride versus prevention pride. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.27

[21] Howe, William T. & Cionea, Ioana A. (2021). Exploring the associations between debate participation, communication competence, communication apprehension, and argumentativeness with a global sample. Argumentation and Advocacy, 57(2), 103-122. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511431.2021.1897274

[22] Hsu, Chia—Fang & Huang, I—Ting. (2017). Are international students quiet in class? The influence of teacher confirmation on classroom apprehension and willingness to talk in class. Journal of International Students, 7(1), 38-52. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v7i1.244

[23] Jalleh, Christine Mary; Mahfoodh, Omer Hassan Ali & Singh, Manjet Kaur Mehar. (2021). Oral communication apprehension among Japanese EFL international students in a language immersion program in Malaysia. International Journal of Instruction, 14(2), 155-178.

[24] Kasap, Suleyman. (2019). Anxiety in the EFL speaking classrooms. The Journal of Language Learning and Teaching, 9(2), 23-36.

[25] Kim, Joe—On & Mueller, Charles W. (1978). Factor analysis: Statistical methods and practical issues (Vol. 14, pp. 88). Sage Publications, Inc.

[26] Kobayashi, Akiko. (2008). Relation between willingness to communicate in Japanese and learning motive. Bulletin of the Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University. Part. 2, Arts and Science Education, 57, 245-253. http://ir.lib.hiroshima—u.ac.jp/00026088

[27] Kurman, Jenny & Hui, Chin Ming. (2011). Promotion, prevention or both: Regulatory focus and culture revisited. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307—0919.1109

[28] Lalwani, Ashok K.; Shrum, L. J. & Chiu, Chi—yue. (2009). Motivated response styles: The role of cultural values, regulatory focus, and self—consciousness in socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 870-882. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014622

[29] Lin, Yang & Rancer, Andrew S. (2003). Ethnocentrism, intercultural communication apprehension, intercultural willingness‐to‐communicate, and intentions to participate in an intercultural dialogue program: Testing a proposed model. Communication Research Reports, 20(1), 62-72. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090309388800

[30] Lockley, Thomas. (2013). Exploring self—perceived communication competence in foreign language learning. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 3(2), 187-212.

[31] Lockwood, Penelope; Marshall, Tara C. & Sadler, Pamela. (2005). Promoting success or preventing failure: Cultural differences in motivation by positive and negative role models. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(3), 379-392. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271598

[32] Lu, Yu & Hsu, Chia—Fang. (2008). Willingness to communicate in intercultural interactions between Chinese and Americans. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 37(2), 75-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475750802533356

[33] Ma, Rong & Hample, Dale. (2018). Appraisal models of intercultural communication apprehension among sojourners. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 11(3), 192-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/17513057.2018.1450889

[34] Matsuoka, Mirei; Tabata, Naoya; Mitsumura, Misako; Takahashi, Junko & Takagi, Hiroto (2021). Development of the Japanese version of the Regulatory Focus Questionnaire. The Japanese Journal of Personality, 30(3), 144-147. (in Japanese) https://doi.org/10.2132/personality.30.3.4

[35] McCroskey, James C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research, 4(1), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468—2958.1977.tb00599.x

[36] McCroskey, James C. (1992). Reliability and validity of the willingness to communicate scale. Communication Quarterly, 40(1), 16-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463379209369817

[37] McCroskey, James C. (2009). Communication apprehension: What have we learned in the last four decades. Human Communication, 12(2), 157-171. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468—2958.1977.tb00599.x

[38] McCroskey, James C. & McCroskey, Linda L. (1988). Self‐report as an approach to measuring communication competence. Communication Research Reports, 5(2), 108-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824098809359810

[39] Nath, Rituparna. (2023, May 19). TOEFL average score program wise and country wise 2022. Retrieved May 20, 2023. https://collegedunia.com/exams/toefl/toefl—average—score

[40] Neuliep, James W. (2012). The relationship among intercultural communication apprehension, ethnocentrism, uncertainty reduction, and communication satisfaction during initial intercultural interaction: An extension of anxiety and uncertainty management (AUM) theory. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 41(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2011.623239

[41] Neuliep, James W.; Chadouir, Michelle & McCroskey, James C. (2003). A cross‐cultural test of the association between temperament and communication apprehension. Communication Research Reports, 20(4), 320-330. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090309388831

[42] Neuliep, James W. & McCroskey, James C. (1997). The development of intercultural and interethnic communication apprehension scales. Communication Research Reports, 14(2), 145-156. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824099709388656

[43] Ogawa, Naomi. (1999). The concept of facework: Its functions in the Hawaii model of mediation. Mediation Quarterly, 17(1), 5-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/crq.3890170103

[44] Peng, Jian—E. (2012). Towards an ecological understanding of willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms in China. System, 40(2), 203-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2012.02.002

[45] Sallinen‐Kuparinen, Aino; McCroskey, James C. & Richmond, Virginia P. (1991). Willingness to communicate, communication apprehension, introversion, and self‐reported communication competence: Finnish and American comparisons. Communication Research Reports, 8(1), 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824099109359876

[46] Scholer, Abigail A.; Cornwell, James F. M. & Higgins, E. Tory. (2019). Regulatory focus theory and research: Catching up and looking forward after 20 years. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 47-66). Oxford University Press.

[47] Scholer, Abigail A.; Ozaki, Yuka & Higgins, E. Tory. (2014). Inflating and deflating the self: Sustaining motivational concerns through self—evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 51, 60-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2013.11.008

[48] Shepperd, James A.; Emanuel, Amber S.; Dodd, Virginia J. & Logan, Henrietta L. (2016). The reliability of psychological instruments in community samples: A cautionary note. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(9), 2033-2041. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105315569

[49] Shimamura, Kyousuke. (2011). Japanese university EFL learners’ learning anxiety and their perceptions of English learning in the classroom. Bulletin of Fukuoka International University, 26, 1-12.

[50] Tavakol, Mohsen & Dennick, Reg. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd

[51] Ting—Toomey, Stella & Kurogi, Atsuko. (1998). Facework competence in intercultural conflict: An updated face—negotiation theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22(2), 187-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147—1767(98)00004—2

[52] United States Census Bureau . (n.d.). Supplementary tables on race and Hispanic origin: 2020 census redistricting data (P.L. 94—171). Retrieved January 21, 2023, from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2020/dec/2020—redistricting—supplementary—tables.html

[53] Yamagami, M. (2008). Constructing the Japanese version of the regulatory focus scale: Promotion and prevention focus on different adaptive indices. Proceedings of the 72nd Conference of the Japanese Psychological Association, 229. (in Japanese) https://doi.org/10.4992/pacjpa.72.0_2EV182

[54] Yashima, Tomoko. (2009). International posture and the ideal L2 self in the Japanese EFL context. Motivation, language identity and the L2 self, 86(1), 144-163. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691293—008

[55] Yao, Qi; Le, Guoan; Wu, Chengcong; Li, Yanfei & Chen, Chen. (2008). The measurement dimension of regulatory focus and the validity and reliability test of questionnaire. Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology, 14(4), 318-323. (in Chinese)

[56] Yu, Haishen; Li, Hongmei & Gou, Xiaoming. (2011). The personality—based variables and their correlations underlying willingness to communicate. Asian Social Science, 7(3), 253.

[57] Zhao, Xiang. (2016). The impact of intercultural sensitivity on ethnocentrism and intercultural communication apprehension. Journal of Harbin University, 3, 111-115. (in Chinese)

[58] Zhong, Jie; Wang, Aimin; Qian, Mingyi; Zhang, Lili; Gao, J.; Yang, Jun; Yang, Jianxiang; Li, Bo & Chen, Ping. (2008). Shame, personality, and social anxiety symptoms in Chinese and American nonclinical samples: A cross‐cultural study. Depression and Anxiety, 25(5), 449-460. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20358