Unlocking rooftop potential for sustainable cities: A systematic review

Abstract

The utilization of rooftop space offers various benefits to cities and their residents, such as urban heat island mitigation, energy saving, and water management. However, a comprehensive understanding of these benefits and their regional differences is still lacking. We reviewed 97 articles published between 2000 and 2022 to evaluate the efficiency of various rooftop engineering approaches, including green roofs, white roofs, solar roofs, blue roofs, and wind turbine roofs. The main findings are as follows: (I) As of 2020, there are ~245 billion m² of rooftop space worldwide, equivalent to the land area of the UK. About 29%–50% of these rooftops are suitable for utilization. (II) Effective use of rooftop space can cool cities by ~0.60°C, meet ~44% of city energy demand, reduce runoff by ~17%, and save ~23% of building water demand. (III) Climate and building types influence the efficiency of rooftop engineering, with mediterranean climates and low-rise buildings offering the most favorable conditions. This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of global rooftop resources and their potential benefits, offering valuable guidance for cities to adopt differentiated rooftop strategies.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

rooftop engineering / review / urban heat island mitigation / energy saving / water management

References

[1] Abuseif M, Gou Z, (2018). A review of roofing methods: construction features, heat reduction, payback period and climatic responsiveness. Energies, 11( 11): 3196

[2] Algarni S, Almutairi K, Alqahtani T, (2022). Investigating the performance of energy management in office buildings by using a suitable green roof design to reduce the building’s energy consumption. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 54: 102825

[3] AlmutairiMChahalAFritzJSotoL (2017). Residential wind turbine design decision support system. In: 2017 Systems and Information Engineering Design Symposium (SIEDS), 324–329

[4] Assouline D, Mohajeri N, Scartezzini J L, (2018). Large-scale rooftop solar photovoltaic technical potential estimation using random forests. Applied Energy, 217( 5): 189–211

[5] Ávila-Hernández A, Simá E, Xamán J, Hernández-Pérez I, Téllez-Velázquez E, Chagolla-Aranda M A, (2020). Test box experiment and simulations of a green-roof: Thermal and energy performance of a residential building standard for Mexico. Energy and Building, 209( 2): 109709

[6] Bashar M Z I, Karim M R, Imteaz M A, (2018). Reliability and economic analysis of urban rainwater harvesting: A comparative study within six major cities of Bangladesh. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 133: 146–154

[7] Battisti R, Corrado A, (2005). Evaluation of technical improvements of photovoltaic systems through life cycle assessment methodology. Energy, 30( 7): 952–967

[8] Berardi U, (2016). The outdoor microclimate benefits and energy saving resulting from green roofs retrofits. Energy and Building, 121: 217–229

[9] Besir A B, Cuce E, (2018). Green roofs and facades: A comprehensive review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82: 915–939

[10] Blackhurst M, (2020). Empirically modeling the energy implications of cool roof retrofits. Frontiers in Built Environment, 6: 571429

[11] Broadbent A M, Krayenhoff E S, Georgescu M, (2020). Efficacy of cool roofs at reducing pedestrian-level air temperature during projected 21st century heatwaves in Atlanta, Detroit, and Phoenix (USA). Environmental Research Letters, 15( 8): 084007

[12] Campos P, Troncoso L, Lund P D, Cuevas C, Fissore A, Garcia R, (2016). Potential of distributed photovoltaics in urban Chile. Solar Energy, 135: 43–49

[13] Cao M, Rosado P, Lin Z, Levinson R, Millstein D, (2015). Cool roofs in Guangzhou, China: outdoor air temperature reductions during heat waves and typical summer conditions. Environmental Science & Technology, 49( 24): 14672–14679

[14] Chaimoon N, (2013). The observation of rainwater harvesting potential in Mahasarakham University (Khamriang campus). Advanced Materials Research, 807–809: 1087–1092

[15] Chapman S, Watson J E M, Salazar A, Thatcher M, McAlpine C A, (2017). The impact of urbanization and climate change on urban temperatures: A systematic review. Landscape Ecology, 32( 10): 1921–1935

[16] Chen M, Liu W, Lu D, (2016). Challenges and the way forward in China’s new-type urbanization. Land Use Policy, 55: 334–339

[17] Chen Y C, Chen S K, Chen Z A, (2022). Increasing water retention capacity via grey roof to green roof transformation. Water and Environment Journal, 36( 3): 448–457

[18] Cheng L, Zhang F, Li S, Mao J, Xu H, Ju W, Liu X, Wu J, Min K, Zhang X, Li M, (2020). Solar energy potential of urban buildings in 10 cities of China. Energy, 196: 117038

[19] Clark C, Adriaens P, Talbot F B, (2008). Green roof valuation: a probabilistic economic analysis of environmental benefits. Environmental Science & Technology, 42( 6): 2155–2161

[20] Cristiano E, Farris S, Deidda R, Viola F, (2023). How much green roofs and rainwater harvesting systems can contribute to urban flood mitigation. Urban Water Journal, 20( 2): 140–157

[21] Deetman S, Marinova S, van der Voet E, van Vuuren D P, Edelenbosch O, Heijungs R, (2020). Modelling global material stocks and flows for residential and service sector buildings towards 2050. Journal of Cleaner Production, 245: 118658

[22] Dehwah A H A, Asif M, (2019). Assessment of net energy contribution to buildings by rooftop photovoltaic systems in hot-humid climates. Renewable Energy, 131: 1288–1299

[23] Di Turi S, Ronchetti L, Sannino R, (2023). Towards the objective of net ZEB: Detailed energy analysis and cost assessment for new office buildings in Italy. Energy and Building, 279: 112707

[24] Dong J, Lin M, Zuo J, Lin T, Liu J, Sun C, Luo J, (2020). Quantitative study on the cooling effect of green roofs in a high-density urban area—A case study of Xiamen, China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 255: 120152

[25] Dvorak B, Volder A, (2010). Green roof vegetation for north American ecoregions: A literature review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 96( 4): 197–213

[26] Esch T, Brzoska E, Dech S, Leutner B, Palacios-Lopez D, Metz-Marconcini A, Marconcini M, Roth A, Zeidler J, (2022). World settlement footprint 3D—A first three-dimensional survey of the global building stock. Remote Sensing of Environment, 270: 112877

[27] Feng Y, Wang J, Zhou W, Li X, Yu X, (2022). Evaluating the cooling performance of green roofs under extreme heat conditions. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10: 874614

[28] Fu X, Wang D, Luan Q, Liu J, Wang Z, Tian J, (2022). Community scale assessment of the effectiveness of designed discharge routes from building roofs for stormwater reduction. Remote Sensing, 14( 13): 2970

[29] Fuster-Palop E, Prades-Gil C, Masip X, Viana-Fons J D, Payá J, (2021). Innovative regression-based methodology to assess the techno-economic performance of photovoltaic installations in urban areas. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 149: 111357

[30] Gagliano A, Nocera F, Patania F, Capizzi A, (2013). Assessment of micro-wind turbines performance in the urban environments: an aided methodology through geographical information systems. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering, 4( 1): 43

[31] Gagnon P, Margolis R, Melius J, Phillips C, Elmore R, (2018). Estimating rooftop solar technical potential across the US using a combination of GIS-based methods, Lidar data, and statistical modeling. Environmental Research Letters, 13( 2): 024027

[32] Gernaat D E H J, de Boer H S, Dammeier L C, van Vuuren D P, (2020). The role of residential rooftop photovoltaic in long-term energy and climate scenarios. Applied Energy, 279: 115705

[33] Gilabert J, Ventura S, Segura R, Martilli A, Badia A, Llasat C, Corbera J, Villalba G, (2021). Abating heat waves in a coastal mediterranean city: What can cool roofs and vegetation contribute. Urban Climate, 37: 100863

[34] He C, He L, Zhang Y, Kinney P L, Ma W, (2020). Potential impacts of cool and green roofs on temperature-related mortality in the Greater Boston region. Environmental Research Letters, 15( 9): 094042

[35] Imran H M, Kala J, Ng A W M, Muthukumaran S, (2018). Effectiveness of green and cool roofs in mitigating urban heat island effects during a heatwave event in the city of Melbourne in southeast Australia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 197: 393–405

[36] Jaffal I, Ouldboukhitine S E, Belarbi R, (2012). A comprehensive study of the impact of green roofs on building energy performance. Renewable Energy, 43: 157–164

[37] Jeong S, Millstein D, Levinson R, (2021). Modeling potential air temperature reductions yielded by cool roofs and urban irrigation in the Kansas city metropolitan area. Urban Climate, 37: 100833

[38] Jo J H, Carlson J D, Golden J S, Bryan H, (2010). An integrated empirical and modeling methodology for analyzing solar reflective roof technologies on commercial buildings. Building and Environment, 45( 2): 453–460

[39] Joshi S, Mittal S, Holloway P, Shukla P R, Ó Gallachóir B, Glynn J, (2021). High resolution global spatiotemporal assessment of rooftop solar photovoltaics potential for renewable electricity generation. Nature Communications, 12( 1): 5738

[40] Karthikeya B R, Negi P S, Srikanth N, (2016). Wind resource assessment for urban renewable energy application in Singapore. Renewable Energy, 87: 403–414

[41] Kim J E, Teh E X, Humphrey D, Hofman J, (2021). Optimal storage sizing for indoor arena rainwater harvesting: Hydraulic simulation and economic assessment. Journal of Environmental Management, 280( 2): 111847

[42] Kolavani N J, Kolavani N J, (2020). Technical feasibility analysis of rainwater harvesting system implementation for domestic use. Sustainable Cities and Society, 62: 102340

[43] Mansouri Kouhestani F, Byrne J, Johnson D, Spencer L, Hazendonk P, Brown B, (2019). Evaluating solar energy technical and economic potential on rooftops in an urban setting: The city of Lethbridge, Canada. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering, 10( 1): 13–32

[44] Kurdgelashvili L, Li J, Shih C H, Attia B, (2016). Estimating technical potential for rooftop photovoltaics in California, Arizona and New Jersey. Renewable Energy, 95( 9): 286–302

[45] Kuronuma T, Watanabe H, Ishihara T, Kou D, Toushima K, Ando M, Shindo S, (2018). CO₂ payoff of extensive green roofs with different vegetation species. Sustainability, 10( 7): 2256

[46] Lalosevic M, Komatina M, Milos M, Rudonja N, (2018). Green roofs and cool materials as retrofitting strategies for urban heat island mitigation: Case study in Belgrade, Serbia. Thermal Science, 22( 6A): 2309–2324

[47] Lamnatou C, Chemisana D, (2015). Evaluation of photovoltaic-green and other roofing systems by means of ReCiPe and multiple life cycle-based environmental indicators. Building and Environment, 93: 376–384

[48] Ledo L, Kosasih P B, Cooper P, (2011). Roof mounting site analysis for micro-wind turbines. Renewable Energy, 36( 5): 1379–1391

[49] Li D, Bou-Zeid E, Oppenheimer M, (2014). The effectiveness of cool and green roofs as urban heat island mitigation strategies. Environmental Research Letters, 9( 5): 055002

[50] Li M, Wang Y, Rosier J F, Verburg P H, van Vliet J, (2022a). Global maps of 3D built-up patterns for urban morphological analysis. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 114: 103048

[51] Li Z, Zhang S, He B, Xie L, Chen M, Li J, Zhao O, Wu X, (2022b). A comprehensive life cycle assessment study of innovative bifacial photovoltaic applied on building. Energy, 245: 123212

[52] Litofsky A L E, Jennings A A, (2014). Evaluating rain barrel storm water management effectiveness across climatography zones of the United States. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 140( 4): 04014009

[53] Liu C, Zhang S, Chen X, Xu W, Wang K, (2022a). A comprehensive study of the potential and applicability of photovoltaic systems for zero carbon buildings in Hainan Province, China. Solar Energy, 238: 371–380

[54] Liu S, Yan Y, Zhang Z, Bai J, (2019). Effect of distributed photovoltaic power station on cooling load induced by roof for sunny day in summer. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 10: 36–41

[55] Liu W, Qian Y, Yao L, Feng Q, Engel B A, Chen W, Yu T, (2022b). Identifying city-scale potential and priority areas for retrofitting green roofs and assessing their runoff reduction effectiveness in urban functional zones. Journal of Cleaner Production, 332: 130064

[56] Lu L, Chan F K S, Johnson M, Zhu F, Xu Y, (2023). The development of roadside green swales in the Chinese sponge city program: Challenges and opportunities. Frontiers of Engineering Management, 10( 4): 566–581

[57] Lu L, Ip K Y, (2009). Investigation on the feasibility and enhancement methods of wind power utilization in high-rise buildings of Hong Kong. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13( 2): 450–461

[58] Lynn B H, Lynn I M, (2020). The impact of cool and green roofs on summertime temperatures in the cities of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. Science of the Total Environment, 743: 140568

[59] Macintyre H L, Heaviside C, (2019). Potential benefits of cool roofs in reducing heat-related mortality during heatwaves in a European city. Environment International, 127: 430–441

[60] Macintyre H L, Heaviside C, Cai X, Phalkey R, (2021). Comparing temperature-related mortality impacts of cool roofs in winter and summer in a highly urbanized European region for present and future climate. Environment International, 154: 106606

[61] Mahdiyar A, Tabatabaee S, Yahya K, Mohandes S R, (2021). A probabilistic financial feasibility study on green roof installation from the private and social perspectives. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 58( 5): 126893

[62] Margolis R, Gagnon P, Melius J, Phillips C, Elmore R, (2017). Using GIS-based methods and Lidar data to estimate rooftop solar technical potential in US cities. Environmental Research Letters, 12( 7): 074013

[63] Mentens J, Raes D, Hermy M, (2006). Green roofs as a tool for solving the rainwater runoff problem in the urbanized 21st century. Landscape and Urban Planning, 77( 3): 217–226

[64] Mihalakakou G, Souliotis M, Papadaki M, Menounou P, Dimopoulos P, Kolokotsa D, Paravantis J A, Tsangrassoulis A, Panaras G, Giannakopoulos E, Papaefthimiou S, (2023). Green roofs as a bature-based solution for improving urban sustainability: Progress and perspectives. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 180: 113306

[65] Millward-Hopkins J T, Tomlin A S, Ma L, Ingham D B, Pourkashanian M, (2013). Mapping the wind resource over UK cities. Renewable Energy, 55: 202–211

[66] Milojevic-Dupont N, Wagner F, Nachtigall F, Hu J, Brüser G B, Zumwald M, Biljecki F, Heeren N, Kaack L H, Pichler P P, Creutzig F, (2023). EUBUCCO v0.1: European building stock characteristics in a common and open database for 200+ million individual buildings. Scientific Data, 10( 1): 1–17

[67] Mishra T, Rabha A, Kumar U, Arunachalam K, Sridhar V, (2020). Assessment of solar power potential in a hill state of India using remote sensing and geographic information system. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, 19( 8): 100370

[68] Mithraratne N, (2009). Roof-top wind turbines for microgeneration in urban houses in New Zealand. Energy and Building, 41( 10): 1013–1018

[69] Molin A, Schneider S, Rohdin P, Moshfegh B, (2016). Assessing a regional building applied PV potential – Spatial and dynamic analysis of supply and load matching. Renewable Energy, 91: 261–274

[70] Molnár G, Ürge-Vorsatz D, Chatterjee S, (2022). Estimating the global technical potential of building-integrated solar energy production using a high-resolution geospatial model. Journal of Cleaner Production, 375: 134133

[71] Morakinyo T E, Dahanayake K W D K C, Ng E, Chow C L, (2017). Temperature and cooling demand reduction by green-roof types in different climates and urban densities: A co-simulation parametric study. Energy and Building, 145: 226–237

[72] MovahedYBakhtiariAEslamiSNoorollahiY (2020). Investigation of single-storey residential green roof contribution to buildings energy demand reduction in different climate zones of Iran. International Journal of Green Energy, early acces

[73] Naing Y M, Nitivattananon V, Shipin O V, (2017). Green roof retrofitting: Potential assessment in an academic campus. Engineering Journal, 21( 7): 57–74

[74] Nasrallah H, Samhat A E, Shi Y, Zhu X X, Faour G, Ghandour A J, (2022). Lebanon solar rooftop potential assessment using buildings segmentation from aerial images. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, 15: 4909–4918

[75] Nguyen X C, Nguyen T T H, Bui X T, Tran X V, Tran T C P, Hoang N T T, La D D, Chang S W, Ngo H H, Nguyen D D, (2021). Status of water use and potential of rainwater harvesting for replacing centralized supply system in remote mountainous areas: A case study. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28( 45): 63589–98

[76] Nthuni S M, Lübker T, Schaab G, (2014). Modelling the potential of rainwater harvesting in western Kenya using remote sensing and GIS techniques. South African Journal of Geomatics, 3( 3): 285–301

[77] Oleson K W, Bonan G B, Feddema J, (2010). Effects of white roofs on urban temperature in a global climate model’. Geophysical Research Letters, 37( 3): 2009GL042194

[78] Phillips C, Elmore R, Melius J, Gagnon P, Margolis R, (2019). A data mining approach to estimating rooftop photovoltaic potential in the US. Journal of Applied Statistics, 46( 3): 385–394

[79] Rawat M, Singh R N, (2022). Techno-economic analysis of cool roof materials in a composite climatic zone. Materials Today: Proceedings, 52: 1406–1410

[80] Refahi A H, Talkhabi H, (2015). Investigating the effective factors on the reduction of energy consumption in residential buildings with green roofs. Renewable Energy, 80: 595–603

[81] Rezaeiha A, Montazeri H, Blocken B, (2020). A framework for preliminary large-scale urban wind energy potential assessment: Roof-mounted wind turbines. Energy Conversion and Management, 214: 112770

[82] Romero Rodríguez L, Duminil E, Sánchez Ramos J, Eicker U, (2017). Assessment of the photovoltaic potential at urban level based on 3D city models: A case study and new methodological approach. Solar Energy, 146: 264–275

[83] Rosenzweig C, Solecki W D, Parshall L, Lynn B, Cox J, Goldberg R, Hodges S, Gaffin S, Slosberg R B, Savio P, Dunstan F, Watson M, (2009). Mitigating Nenew York City’s heat island: Integrating stakeholder perspectives and scientific evaluation. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 90( 9): 1297–1312

[84] Saidan M N, Al-Weshah R A, Obada I, (2015). Potential rainwater harvesting: An adaptation measure for urban areas in Jordan. American Water Works Association, 107( 11): E594–602

[85] Santamouris M, (2014). Cooling the cities – A review of reflective and green roof mitigation technologies to fight heat island and improve comfort in urban environments. Solar Energy, 103: 682–703

[86] Shafique M, Kim R, Rafiq M, (2018). Green roof benefits, opportunities and challenges – A review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 90: 757–773

[87] Shah A M, Liu G, Chen Y, Yang Q, Yan N, Agostinho F, Almeida C M V B, Giannetti B F, (2023). Urban constructed wetlands: Assessing ecosystem services and disservices for safe, resilient, and sustainable cities. Frontiers of Engineering Management, 10( 4): 582–596

[88] Sharifi A, Yamagata Y, (2015). Roof ponds as passive heating and cooling systems: A systematic review. Applied Energy, 160: 336–357

[89] Sharma A, Conry P, Fernando H J S, Hamlet A F, Hellmann J J, Chen F, (2016). Green and cool roofs to mitigate urban heat island effects in the Chicago metropolitan area: Evaluation with a regional climate model. Environmental Research Letters, 11( 6): 064004

[90] Singh R, Banerjee R, (2015). Estimation of rooftop solar photovoltaic potential of a city. Solar Energy, 115: 589–602

[91] Sorgato M J, Schneider K, Rüther R, (2018). Technical and economic evaluation of thin-film CdTe building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) replacing façade and rooftop materials in office buildings in a warm and sunny climate. Renewable Energy, 118: 84–98

[92] Strzalka A, Alam N, Duminil E, Coors V, Eicker U, (2012). Large scale integration of photovoltaics in cities. Applied Energy, 93: 413–421

[93] Sun L, Chang Y, Wu Y, Sun Y, Su D, (2022). Potential estimation of rooftop photovoltaic with the spatialization of energy self-sufficiency in urban areas. Energy Reports, 8: 3982–3994

[94] Taha H, (2013). The potential for air-temperature impact from large-scale deployment of solar photovoltaic arrays in urban areas. Solar Energy, 91: 358–367

[95] Talut M, Bahaj A S, James P, (2022). Solar power potential from industrial buildings and impact on electricity supply in Bangladesh. Energies, 15( 11): 4037

[96] Tian J, Xu S, (2021). A morphology-based evaluation on block-scale solar potential for residential area in central China. Solar Energy, 221: 332–347

[97] Tjandraatmadja G, Pollard C, Sharma A, Gardner T, (2013). How supply system design can reduce the energy footprint of rainwater supply in urban areas in Australia. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 13( 3): 753–760

[98] Twohig C, Casali Y, Aydin N Y, (2022). Can green roofs help with stormwater floods? A geospatial planning approach. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 76: 127724

[99] Vahmani P, Sun F, Hall A, Ban-Weiss G, (2016). Investigating the climate impacts of urbanization and the potential for cool roofs to counter future climate change in southern California. Environmental Research Letters, 11( 12): 124027

[100] Vallejo-Díaz A, Herrera-Moya I, Fernández-Bonilla A, Pereyra-Mariñez C, (2022). Wind energy potential assessment of selected locations at two major cities in the Dominican Republic, toward energy matrix decarbonization, with resilience approach. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 32: 101313

[101] Versini P A, Jouve P, Ramier D, Berthier E, de Gouvello B, (2016). Use of green roofs to solve storm water issues at the basin scale – Study in the Hauts-de-Seine County (France). Urban Water Journal, 13( 4): 372–381

[102] Vijayaraghavan K, (2016). Green roofs: A critical review on the role of components, benefits, limitations and trends. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 57: 740–752

[103] Walch A, Castello R, Mohajeri N, Scartezzini J L, (2020). Big data mining for the estimation of hourly rooftop photovoltaic potential and its uncertainty. Applied Energy, 262( 5): 114404

[104] Wang L, Wang H, Wang Y, Che Y, Ge Z, Mao L, (2022a). The relationship between green roofs and urban biodiversity: A systematic review. Biodiversity and Conservation, 31( 7): 1771–1796

[105] Wang P, Yu P, Huang L, Zhang Y, (2022b). An integrated technical, economic, and environmental framework for evaluating the rooftop photovoltaic potential of old residential buildings. Journal of Environmental Management, 317: 115296

[106] Wheeler S M, (2015). Built landscapes of metropolitan regions: An international typology. Journal of the American Planning Association, 81( 3): 167–190

[107] Wiginton L K, Nguyen H T, Pearce J M, (2010). Quantifying rooftop solar photovoltaic potential for regional renewable energy policy. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 34( 4): 345–357

[108] Wijesuriya S, Kishore R A, Bianchi M V A, Booten C, (2022). Potential energy savings benefits and limitations of radiative cooling coatings for U.S. residential buildings. Journal of Cleaner Production, 379: 134763

[109] Wong N H, Cheong D K W, Yan H, Soh J, Ong C L, Sia A, (2003). The effects of rooftop garden on energy consumption of a commercial building in singapore. Energy and Building, 35( 4): 353–364

[110] Xu C, Rahman M, Haase D, Wu Y, Su M, Pauleit S, (2020). Surface runoff in urban areas: The role of residential cover and urban growth form. Journal of Cleaner Production, 262: 121421

[111] Xu S, Li Z, Zhang C, Huang Z, Tian J, Luo Y, Du H, (2021). A method of calculating urban-scale solar potential by evaluating and quantifying the relationship between urban block typology and occlusion coefficient: A case study of Wuhan in central China. Sustainable Cities and Society, 64: 102451

[112] Xu S, Sang M, Xie M, Xiong F, Mendis T, Xiang X, (2023). Influence of urban morphological factors on building energy consumption combined with photovoltaic potential: A case study of residential blocks in central China. Building Simulation, 16( 9): 1777–1792

[113] Yang Y, Campana P E, Stridh B, Yan J, (2020). Potential analysis of roof-mounted solar photovoltaics in Sweden. Applied Energy, 279: 115786

[114] Yildirim D, Büyüksalih G, Şahin A D, (2021). Rooftop photovoltaic potential in Istanbul: Calculations based on LiDAR data, measurements and verifications. Applied Energy, 304( 12): 117743

[115] Zhang J, Zhang K, Liu J, Ban-Weiss G, (2016). Revisiting the climate impacts of cool roofs around the globe using an earth system model. Environmental Research Letters, 11( 8): 084014

[116] Zhang P, Ariaratnam S T, (2021). Life cycle cost savings analysis on traditional drainage systems from low impact development strategies. Frontiers of Engineering Management, 8( 1): 88–97

[117] Zhang Z, Qian Z, Zhong T, Chen M, Zhang K, Yang Y, Zhu R, Zhang F, Zhang H, Zhou F, Yu J, Zhang B, Lü G, Yan J, (2022). Vectorized rooftop area data for 90 cities in China. Scientific Data, 9( 1): 66

[118] Zhao H, Yang R, Wang C, Pabasara W M, Wijeratne U, Liu C, Xue X, Abdeen N, (2019). Effects of design parameters on rooftop photovoltaic economics in the urban environment: A case study in Melbourne, Australia. Frontiers of Engineering Management, 6( 3): 351–367

[119] Zhou D, Liu Y, Hu S, Hu D, Neto S, Zhang Y, (2019). Assessing the hydrological behaviour of large-scale potential green roofs retrofitting scenarios in Beijing. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 40: 105–113

[120] Zuo J, Ma J, Lin T, Dong J, Lin M, Luo J, (2022). Quantitative valuation of green roofs’ cooling effects under different urban spatial forms in high-density urban areas. Building and Environment, 222: 109367

[121] Žuvela-Aloise M, Andre K, Schwaiger H, Bird D N, Gallaun H, (2018). Modelling reduction of urban heat load in Vienna by modifying surface properties of roofs. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 131( 3-4): 1005–1018

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at https://doi.org/10.1007/s42524-024-4053-3 and is accessible for authorized users.

Notations
ANT	Antarctic
CAUS	Canada and the United States
ESEA	East and Southeast Asia
EUR	Europe
LAM	Latin America
MENA	Middle East and North Africa
OCE	Oceania
RFCA	Russian Federation and Central Asia
SOA	South Asia
SSA	Sub-Saharan Africa
LCZ1	Compact high-rise buildings
LCZ2	Compact mid-rise buildings
LCZ3	Compact low-rise buildings
LCZ4	Open high-rise buildings
LCZ5	Open mid-rise buildings
LCZ6	Open low-rise buildings
LCZ7	Lightweight low-rise buildings
LCZ8	Large low-rise buildings
LCZ9	Sparsely built buildings
LCZ10	Heavy industry buildings

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 Higher Education Press