Critical minerals and materials are fundamental to national economy, national defense construction, and residents’ lives; therefore, it is of great significance to ensure the stability of their supply chain. This study associates mineral resources with thematerial industry and analyzes the strategic needs and development status of China’s key minerals and their raw material industries from the perspective of the entire industrial chain including resource exploration, mining, smelting, material processing, manufacturing, and product recycling. Moreover, problems are summarized including blocked industrial chain; insufficient supply of key minerals at the resource end; high energy consumption and excessive scale at the smelting end; insufficient support capacity, inadequate innovation ability, and weak industrial foundation at the material end; and lagging development at the recycling end. Focusing on exploration, mining, and basic raw material preparation, a three-step goal by 2035 is proposed, and technological development priorities are summarized from the aspects of mining, smelting, and basic raw materials. Furthermore, we propose suggestions for the high-quality development of China’s key minerals and material industry supply chain, including promoting the supply guarantee capacity of domestic mineral resources, improving the technical competitiveness of new materials, and unblocking the resource–smelting–material–recycling industrial chain.

The high-quality development of lithium resources and the downstream power battery industry chain is crucial for China’s economic transformation and the steady development of strategic emerging industries. This paper analyzes the implications of lithium and its downstream power battery industry chain, which comprise resource, smelting processing, key material and product, and recycling ends. Based on this, the necessity of high-quality development of relevant industrial chain and its basic situation are expounded. Due to natural and ecological constraints, the expansion of domestic lithium ore production is restricted. The international competition for resources has led to a sharp increase in China's import risks. The core patents on technologies such as cathode materials and electrolytes are monopolized by foreign companies. There remains a gap between domestic and international advanced level in key materials and battery technology, and the accumulation of emerging technologies is inadequate. The secondary recycling system of waste power battery resources is incomplete, and the industrial order needs to be regulated. Focusing on the high-quality development of lithium and its downstream power battery industry chain, the stage development goals for 2025 and 2035 are demonstrated. The construction path proposed includes constructing a safe and stable resource supply system using multiple dimensions, developing key materials and new battery technologies by strengthening the lithium battery technology system and talent reserves, and promoting the coordinated development of all links of the industrial chain while focusing on innovation of key materials and products. Furthermore, we propose the following suggestions: (1) improving the top-level design to form an integrated management model of the entire industry chain, (2) increasing financial support to enable the mutual promotion of basic and applied research, (3) encouraging cooperation among enterprises in the upstream and downstream links to enhance the synergy effect of the industrial chain, and (4) strengthening industry-university-research cooperation to cultivate interdisciplinary talents for the industrial chain.

Manganese is an important strategic mineral resource. China is the world’s largest consumer and importer of manganese resources. However, problems including shortage of manganese ore resources, severe overcapacity, manganese slag pollution, and scattered and disorderly development, have created significant pressure on domestic manganese ore resources and threatens the security of the industrial chain. This paper reviews the industrial supply chain of manganese ore resources and materials in China from five aspects: resource, smelting, material, product, and recovery ends, and discusses the development status, prospects, green and low-carbon development, structural adjustment, and manganese resource reserve of the manganese industry in China. Furthermore, we propose the following suggestions: (1) implementing a green development path to realize comprehensive utilization of manganese slags; (2) establishing a safe and controllable resource supply system by guaranteeing the domestic manganese resource reserve; (3) improving industry concentration and optimizing manganese industry structure; and (4) increasing investment in scientific research on manganese resources while promoting the transformation of scientific and technological achievements.

Natural graphite is a new-technology mineral resource led by new mineral preparation and application technologies and an important raw material that supports the development of China’s strategic emerging industries. This paper analyzes the demand for high-quality development of graphite resources and the graphite material industry, summarizes the development status, unveiled development potentials and major challenges, and puts forward goals for next stage development. Furthermore, this paper proposes the following measures: (1) establishing a technology innovation system that focuses on the deep processing of graphite; (2) optimizing the allocation of resources and boosting the development of green graphite plants and mines; (3) strengthening the capacities of platforms to consolidate the technological innovation foundation for industrial and supply chains; and (4) focusing on breakthroughs in the exclusive application of graphene’s unique physical properties and avoiding excessive marketing. Additionally, it is necessary to set up a sophisticate database that covers the entire industrial and supply chains of graphite, establish a long-term policy mechanism that supports the high-quality development of China’s graphite industry, accelerate resource integration to construct an international graphite valley, and improve innovation platforms to enhance talent trainning.

Nickel sulfate—a crucial component of the nickel industry chain—is the core raw material that supports the development of new energy vehicle power batteries, electroplating, and other fields in China. Its industry development trends and technological development directions regarding raw material production, smelting, processing, and recycling have attracted much attention. In this paper, we summarize the current status of nickel sulfate production and technology in China, and analyze the major problems faced by China’s nickel sulfate industry, including inadequate supply of raw materials, high carbon emission intensity, and a deficient recycling system. Moreover, we analyze the development trends and propose the development ideas and goals for the industry by 2035. Furthermore, we propose the following countermeasures for promoting the sustainable development of the industry: (1) establishing an efficient supply system to promote the diversified supply of raw materials; (2) encouraging technological innovation to reduce production costs and supply pressure; (3) accelerating the development of the regenerated nickel industry to promote the consumption of regenerated nickel; and (4) accelerating the internationalization and industrial integration of Chinese enterprises to enhance their core competitiveness.

The resources of tar-rich coal in Western China are abundant and are available for large-scale development. Understanding the oil and gas resource properties of tar-rich coal and promoting the development and transformation of tar-rich coal to produce oil and gas are crucial for increasing domestic oil and gas supply, relieving external dependence on oil and gas, and ensuring national energy security of China. This study estimated the potential of tar-rich coal resources in Western China based on the current exploration results of coal resources, reviewed the current status and existing problems, and proposed the basic concept and technical conception for the development and utilization of tar-rich coal in Western China considering the new requirements for carbon reduction, intelligent green development, and compensation for oil and gas shortage. The study concluded that the development and utilization of tar-rich coal needs to focus on key technologies, including high-precision comprehensive exploration, high-recovery-rate mining, underground in-situ pyrolysis, pyrolysis and gasification integration, and in-situ pyrolysis char CO₂ storage. Furthermore, we suggest that the tar-rich coal should be included in the management of unconventional oil and gas resources, scientific and technological research on the development and utilization of tar-rich coal should be strengthened, a national demonstration area should be established, and development of new energy and tar-rich coal in Western China should be coordinated, so as to maximize the special advantages of tar-rich coal as coal-based oil and gas resources and realize the low-carbon and high-value utilization of coal resources.

Strengthening exploration and development of oil and gas is crucial for mitigating China’s reliance on oil and gas supply from foreign countries and ensuring national energy security. Since the 11th Five-Year period, fundamental research on the deep-water area of the northern South China Sea has been strengthened, along with the acceleration of technological innovation and increase in exploration investment. As a result, a series of major exploration discoveries were found. This paper presents five major learnings regarding the theories of exploration geology and two achievements in the innovation of exploration technology. It also discusses the new challenges and coping strategies for oil and gas exploration in deep-water areas, and prospects the exploration potentials of three major exploration fields—medium-deep layers, buried hills, and lithologic traps—in the deep-water area of the northern South China Sea. Our research shows that the detachment of the continental margin in the deep-water area of northern South China Sea controls the formation of large sags in the Pearl River Estuary Basin and the Qiongdongnan Basin. Three sets of large-scale source rocks were developed from lacustrine, terrestrial-marine transitional, and marine sedimentary facies. High yet variable subsurface temperature controls the rapid hydrocarbon generation from the source rocks in the sags. In addition, three different hydrocarbon accumulation modes were established: accumulation mode of large axial canyon channel in the deep-water area of the Qiongdongnan Basin, late natural gas accumulation mode of deep-water fan in the deep-water area of Baiyun Sag, and differential hydrocarbon accumulation mode jointly controlled by fault and ridge. Meanwhile, the broadband seismic acquisition and processing technology for three-dimensional source triggering and plow-like cable receiving was independently developed. Guided by several geological theories and innovative technologies, a series of large- and medium-sized gas fields represented by “Deep Sea No. 1” (LS 17-2) were discovered, which are of great significance to ensuring the energy supply of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area, facilitating the green development of energy in the Hainan Free Trade Zone (Port), and promoting the increase of oil and gas reserves and production in China.

The “Deep Sea One” energy station is the first ultra-deep-water large-scale gas field that is independently explored and developed by China and its proven reserves of natural gas exceed hundreds of billions of cubic meters. This energy station is also the first 100 000-ton deep-water semi-submersible production, storage, and offloading platform worldwide; it adopts a whole sea development mode that integrates a semi-submersible production, storage, and offloading platform, a subsea production system, and submarine pipelines. Moreover, the energy station is built by conducting independent design, optimizing organization and management, and strengthening technical research and innovation. This paper first reviews the construction background and challenges, introduces the optimization and breakthroughs of the development modes of deep-water gas fields, and then summarizes the major technological breakthroughs and experiences during the design and construction of this energy station, including oil storage in columns of semi-submersible platforms, load lateral transfer of super-tonnage open structures via pre-inclination and return, and half-floating integrated precisely of super large structures. This study is hoped to provide a useful reference for efficient development of deep-water and ultra-deep-water oil and gas fields and for high-level construction of semi-submersible platforms.

Hydrogen energy is crucial for building a clean, low-carbon, safe, and efficient modern energy system in China. In this article, we expound on the progress of global hydrogen energy industry and summarize the development status of China’s hydrogen energy industry from the aspects of scale, characteristics, and policies. The demand for and problems of China’s hydrogen energy industry are analyzed. Our research shows that the strategic layout of China’s hydrogen energy industry has been continuously strengthened; the investment in hydrogen energy infrastructure has been gradually increased; and a regional industrial agglomeration effect has initially emerged. However, challenges remain including defective standards systems, severe industrial homogenization, incomplete industrial chain, and limited application scenarios. To promote the high-quality development of China’s hydrogen energy industry, we suggest that China should strengthen the top-level design for hydrogen industry development, establish a technical standards system for hydrogen production, storage, and use, promote the pilot demonstration and popularization of the entire hydrogen energy industry chain, and enhance hydrogen technology innovation to achieve a high level of self-reliance.

Accelerating the development of the hydrogen energy industry is crucial for realizing the carbon peaking and carbon neutralization goals and for ensuring national energy security. Hydrogen energy storage has the advantages of cross-seasonal, cross-regional, and large-scale storage, as well as quick response capabilities, which is applicable to all links of “source/grid/load” of a new-type power system. This study analyzes the advantages of hydrogen energy storage over other energy storage technologies, expounds on the demands of the new-type power system for hydrogen energy, and constructs an application value system for hydrogen energy storage in the “source/grid/load” of the new-type power system. The results show that hydrogen energy storage can satisfy the requirements of the new-type power system in terms of storage capacity and discharge time; however, gaps remain in investment cost and conversion efficiency. The hydrogen energy system lacks coordination with the power system, and the application of hydrogen energy storage to the new-type power system lacks incentive policies. Moreover, standards systems are insufficient or even absent in renewable energy hydrogen production, electric–hydrogen coupling operation control, and hydrogen fuel cell power generation. Therefore, we suggest that the electric – hydrogen storage mode with high efficiency and low cost should be primarily used at present, and the electric – hydrogen–electric mode should be auxiliary. It is imperative to give full play to the power of hydrogen, electricity, and carbon markets to promote the low-carbon and low-cost development of hydrogen energy storage; actively explore the combination of hydrogen energy transport modes at different distance scales to solve the problem of mismatched distribution of hydrogen energy resources and loads; and accelerate the development of a new standards system for the electric–hydrogen coupling industry.

The development of hydrogen industry is crucial for realizing the green and low-carbon transformation of terminal energy consumption. The efficiency of hydrogen transportation is key to the development of hydrogen industry. Blending hydrogen in natural gas pipelines can improve the scale and efficiency of hydrogen distribution in a short period of time, and it provides a solution for expanding the scale of hydrogen application. Based on defining the industrial chain of hydrogen blending in natural gas pipelines, the paper discusses the values of developing the blending industry in terms of promoting the hydrogen industry, resolving renewable energy consumption, ensuring energy supply security, realizing the deep carbon reduction of terminal energy consumption, and encouraging energy technology innovation. Moreover, the paper summarizes the international progress and domestic current status of the blending industry. It unravels key issues regarding the hydrogen blending proportion, adaptability of pipes and terminal equipment, and their safety use and technical economy. Furthermore, we propose the following suggestions: (1) strengthening the top-level design, (2) building a standards system for safety supervision as well as technology and operation management of hydrogen blending in natural gas pipelines, (3) actively deploying demonstration projects through multi-participation, and (4) exploring diversified application scenarios and business models, thereby cultivating a sustainable industrial ecosystem to steadily promote the scaled development of the industry.

Hydrogen energy is an important direction for China’s energy transformation and industrial development. Port cities are key areas for China’s economic development and opening up to the outside world. Accelerating the transition to green and low-carbon energies and scaling up the development and utilization of hydrogen energy are crucial for promoting high-quality development of port cities in China. This study analyzes the foundation for developing hydrogen energy in port cities in China, and analyzes the development status, existing planning objectives, and problems. Based on this, the development directions of hydrogen energy in those regions are discussed. This research indicates that port cities in China have obvious regional advantages, rich hydrogen energy resources, prominent application scenarios, strong research and development abilities, and high talent concentration. Key hydrogen energy projects can be deployed and implemented through application scenarios such as ports, heavy trucks, and buses to build port cities into an international energy hub with advanced hydrogen energy technology, sufficient hydrogen energy supply, and complete industrial chain. Furthermore, we suggest that the port cities should actively cooperate with each other to build a healthy ecosystem, build an innovation system by making up for their weaknesses, promote scenario applications while insisting the safety first principle, and encourage technological innovation to stimulate development momentums.

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) has the advantages of high power generation efficiency, excellent fuel adaptability, high-temperature waste heat recovery and so on. It is the most cutting-edge fuel cell technology and has promising application prospects in fields such as large-scale power generation, distributed power generation, combined heat and power generation, transportation, and energy storage. The SOFC technology uses hydrogen and carbon-based fuels and thus can help promote the supply-side reform of China’s energy sector, promote energy technology revolution, and lay a technological foundation for realizing carbon peak and carbon neutralization. This study analyzed the current status of SOFC industry in China and abroad, and discussed the challenges, development ideas, and key tasks for developing the SOFC industry of China. Specifically, China needs to improve its institutional system and the top-level design for SOFC technology and industry development, strengthen fiscal, taxation, and financial support for the industry, and encourage independent technological innovation. Moreover, it is imperative to improve the standards system to form technical standards with independent intellectual property rights, strengthen personnel training, and deepen international exchanges and cooperation. This study is expected to provide guidance for the large-scale and commercial development of China’s SOFC industry in the future.

The rapid development of the shipping industry has made energy consumption and environmental problems of traditional ships increasingly prominent. Hydrogen-powered ships are one of the development directions for waterway transportation vehicles and will play a significant part in achieving the carbon peak and carbon neutralization goals in the waterway transportation field. Therefore, it is urgent to research the innovative developmental mode of hydrogen-powered ships in China. The development status of hydrogen-powered ships is summarized in this article, and the layout of the hydrogen-powered ship industry is analyzed from the perspectives of industrial chain development trend and coordinated development layout. The technical and economic feasibility of developing hydrogen-powered ships is analyzed from the aspects of hydrogen and ammonia fuel, hydrogen fuel cell, hydrogen internal combustion engine, infrastructure, and total cost of ownership. Moreover, the key links of the industry chain of hydrogen-powered ships are analyzed, including hydrogen production, hydrogen transportation, large-capacity hydrogen storage, safe fueling, fuel cell, hydrogen internal combustion engine, multi-energy collaborative control, and safety in hydrogen application. Based on national conditions, we proposed multi-stage development goals, a development roadmap for hydrogen-powered ships, and a construction path for the hydrogen fuel supply system. To promote the rapid and high-quality development of hydrogen-powered ships, China needs to clarify application scenarios, develop key technologies, improve infrastructure facilities, and innovate operation systems.

Hydrogen is a significant industrial raw material and clean fuel, and hydrogen separation has significant social and economic values. Membrane separation has a wide application prospect in hydrogen separation as it uses simple devices, is environmentally friendly, and has high conversion efficiency and low cost of investment. Hydrogen separation membranes remain a research focus as their performance is the major factor that determines hydrogen separation efficiency. This study summarized the application demand and basic mechanism of hydrogen separation membranes and reviewed the research progress of dense metal, porous inorganic, metal-organic framework (MOF), organic polymer, and hybrid matrix membranes. Specifically, although porous inorganic, organic polymer, and hybrid matrix membranes have good hydrogen separation and purification performances, their separation performance still requires improvement when they are applied in distributed and small application scenarios. Improving the anti-poisoning performance of palladium-based metal membranes and optimizing the cost-effectiveness are effective ways to promote industrial application of membranes. Combining the advantages of porous inorganic and MOF membranes can facilitate the significant development of molecular sieving membranes. The high-temperature resistance and mechanical properties of organic polymer membranes require improvement. Modifying existing polymer membrane materials and preparing polymer alloys are two major directions for developing novel gas separation membranes. The performance of hybrid matrix membrane can be notably improved after controllable adjustment of its distribution. The research and application of multiple membranes has supported hydrogen separation and purification, and these membrane techniques will continue creating more engineering values once the number of available materials is increased and the preparation technologies are advanced in the future.

Considering the high-quality development of the energy sector in China, the integration of energy and transport sectors can facilitate the low-carbon, high-efficiency, and intensive development of both sectors and contribute to carbon peaking and carbon neutralization. This study reviewed the development status and trend of the energy system for land transport and proposed a novel system architecture, which consists of power, physical, and application levels. Three integrated scenarios—interconnected power grid, electrified transportation, and energy-transport integrated network—are analyzed from the energy-dominated, transport-dominated, and energy-transport integrated perspectives. Moreover, a novel development strategy for land transport energy system is proposed based on the potential evaluation of natural resources available for transport energy systems of both highways and high-speed railways. A development strategy consists of three structures, three scenarios, and three driving forces is proposed to guide the construction of a low-carbon and efficient transport infrastructure system. The innovation directions for the transport energy system include key equipment research and development, construction and maintenance of the integrated system, and formation of technical specifications and standards. Therefore, it is essential to promote a modern transport energy system that is dominated by renewable energies and supported by electric power. Furthermore, a new transport power system that integrates renewable energy generation, zero-carbon fuel, and electric drive should be established, and a transport‒energy integrated infrastructure should be planned and constructed.

Transportation and energy are crucial for social development and civilization evolution. The energization of transportation infrastructure assets and clean transformation of transportation energies are effective decarbonization strategies for solving severe challenges such as resource shortage, climate change, and environmental pollution. This study first reviews the integration history of road transportation and energy, and investigates the demand for and trends of the integration from the perspectives of national energy security, clean transformation of energy supply, energization potential of transportation infrastructure assets, and intelligentization of the transportation system. The pathway for promoting the integrated development of road transportation and the energy sector is proposed based on assessing the wind and solar resources and the self-consistent supply capacity of energies within the road transportation system. Moreover, a roadmap for integrating road transportation and renewable energies is proposed considering the carbon peak and carbon neutralization targets. Finally, suggestions are proposed from two aspects. In terms of technology development, we suggest that China should enhance technology research and development, improve the industry chain, and promote technology innovation and integration. Additionally, it should provide policies for improving top-level design and strategic planning, exploiting new market modes, and strengthening international cooperation.

Rail transit features high levels of energy consumption and carbon emission; therefore, transforming its energy structure and developing a novel rail transit energy system with self-consistent energy supply become significant approaches for realizing carbon peak and neutrality in China. In this article, we first review the demand for the integrated development of rail transit and energies, summarize the current status and development trends of the integration, and analyze natural endowments for the integration in terms of solar and wind resources. Subsequently, based on the characteristics of electrified and non-electrified rail transits, critical technology paths are proposed considering the natural endowments of renewable energies. Moreover, based on the assessment of self-consistent supply potentials of new energies, a series of scenarios and methods are introduced. A roadmap and suggestions are proposed for rail-energy integration development, aiming to a self-consistent energy system construct for rail transit. The suggestions include: (1) encouraging technology innovation regarding green and intelligent rail transit to form a technology system for rail-energy integration; (2) implementing major scientific and technological projects to coordinate the industrial layout of new energy and rail transit; and (3) formulating support policies to create a policy guarantee system for green finance.

Energy is vital for the survival and development of human society. Waterway transportation, as a significant component of the transportation industry, is one of major fields of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, the integrated development of waterway transportation and energy becomes a powerful measure against severe challenges such as resource shortage, climate change, and environmental pollution. This paper reviews the current energy consumption characteristics of waterway transportation in China in terms of ships and ports, and evaluates the evolution trend of energy demand of relevant main parts from the perspectives of energy supply, quality, and utilization mode. The technical assessment of the integrated development of waterway transportation and energy is conducted, including natural endowment analysis, energy application potential of infrastructure assets, and research and judgment on energy demand. Based on this, the development principles, ideas, and pathways of water way transportation and energy integration in China are proposed. Moreover, this paper proposes suggestions for promoting the integration of waterway transportation and energy in China from the aspects of policy, key technology, and personnel training, so as to provide a basic reference for cross-disciplinary research and high-quality development of the waterway transportation industry.

As carbon peak and carbon neutrality have been incorporated into the overall layout of China’s ecological civilization construction, electric power will play an increasingly important role in leading green development. Implementing re-electrification to realize clean substitution at the energy production side and electric energy substitution at the energy consumption side is significant for China to achieve carbon peak and carbon neutrality on schedule. In this article, we analyze the concept of re-electrification and propose to help China achieve low-carbon development with re-electrification considering the basic national conditions and resource endowment of the country. We analyze the evolution trend of energy and power in China under different scenarios using a research framework of terminal energy demand—energy conversion system—primary energy structure while considering the factors of economy, technology, policy, and environment. The development prospect of re-electrification is also proposed. The research results show that re-electrification will significantly promote carbon neutrality. In 2060, the proportions of non-fossil energy consumption, clean energy power generation, and terminal power consumption will reach 80%, 90%, and 70%, respectively. Therefore, we suggest that China should (1) coordinate the carbon budget and emission reduction paths of various industries, (2) accelerate the adjustment of economic and industrial structures, (3) promote scientific and technological innovation in key fields, and (4) improve the policy systemfor power and carbon markets.

The fusion neutron source is of great significance for conducting material testing for future fusion reactors, as it can genuinely reflect the change of material properties under fusion neutron irradiation. The International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility (IFMIF) is an accelerator-driven neutron source. It still has some differences from the ideal fusion neutron source in terms of fusion neutron energy spectrum, which has led to the reconsideration of the fusion neutron source approach. In this paper, the magnetic field configuration, heating scheme design, and related calculations are carried out regarding the fusion neutron source. The plasma temperature, density evolution process, and the corresponding neutron yield of the field reversed configuration (FRC) plasma after two-stage cascade magnetic compression are analyzed, and the suppression of the magnetic fluid instabilities such as tilted and rotating modes of the FRC plasma after considering the two-fluid effect and the finite Larmor radius effect are studied. The fundamental physical parameters of the fusion neutron source are finally given. The calculation results show that the neutron source is expected to obtain fusion neutrons with an annual average power density higher than 2 MW/m², which can meet the requirements of material testing of the demonstration reactors (DEMO). The power estimation also shows that the scheme has the potential to become an energy source based on the pulsed deuterium-deuterium fusion.

Natural gas hydrate (NGH) is regarded worldwide as the most promising clean energy. Research on the exploration and exploitation of NGH has come to a stage of breakthrough in China. However, the accumulation mechanism and occurrence regularity of NGH from muddy silt in the South China Sea remain unclear, and the hydrate decomposition and phase transformation mechanisms during exploitation as well as safe and efficient technologies require further study. This study reviewed the research and application status of NGH exploitation technologies including depressurization and solid fluidization. Moreover, corresponding suggestions were proposed considering the existing problems regarding current NGH exploitation technologies. Specifically, basic research and major engineering should be promoted for multi-gas exploitation of NGH and deep oil and gas; technology innovation and integration should be strengthened to promote synergy between theory and practice; a numerical simulation big science platform should be established for pilot scale tests and multi-field coupling; and relevant standards need to be established and improved. This can improve the research level and technical maturity of NGH exploitation in China, facilitate its large-scale commercial development, and ensure energy security of China.