MXenes, a family of two-dimensional (2D) transition metal carbides and nitrides, have rapidly gained attention in the field of electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensing owing to their exceptional physicochemical properties, including ultrahigh electrical conductivity, tunable surface terminations, large specific surface area, and excellent biocompatibility. These features render MXenes highly suitable for enhancing ECL signal output, facilitating efficient biomolecule immobilization, and enabling versatile functionalization for selective target recognition. This review provides a comprehensive and up-to-date summary of recent progress in MXene-based ECL biosensors, focusing on material advantages, functionalization strategies, sensing mechanisms, and performance metrics. Special emphasis is placed on the role of MXene in signal amplification and real-sample adaptability. Representative case studies are discussed to illustrate their application in detecting clinical biomarkers, pathogenic genes, environmental pollutants, and food contaminants with high sensitivity and specificity. Moreover, practical challenges—including oxidative degradation, dispersibility, and cytotoxicity—are critically evaluated alongside emerging solutions such as surface engineering and polymer encapsulation. By integrating advanced materials science with biosensing technologies, MXene-based ECL platforms are paving the way for next-generation diagnostic tools. This review aims to provide a useful reference for future research and promote the practical deployment of MXene-based biosensors in biomedical and environmental analysis.

Precision oncology urgently requires multifunctional nanoplatforms capable of integrating therapy, diagnosis, and immune modulation to overcome tumor heterogeneity and therapeutic resistance. Vitamin-derived nanomaterials, the intrinsic biocompatibility, metabolic activity, and receptor-targeting properties of vitamins, have emerged as versatile tools to address these challenges, particularly within the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). This review critically examines recent advances in vitamin-based nanoplatforms, categorizing them by solubility: fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and water-soluble vitamins (B complex, and C). We explore their roles across three critical domains: (i) immunomodulation, including enhancing cancer immunotherapy by activating dendritic cells, reprogramming T-cells, enhancing checkpoint blockade, inhibiting M2 macrophage polarization, regulating T-cells, upregulating anticancer immunity, and remodeling the TME; (ii) stimuli-responsive drug delivery, exploiting vitamin-derived carriers for tumor-specific payload release and spatiotemporal delivery of antigens/adjuvants; and (iii) diagnostic integration, utilizing vitamin-conjugated imaging probes and theranostic hybrids. In addition, we highlight key preclinical breakthroughs demonstrating that these platforms enhance immunotherapeutic efficacy while minimizing toxicity. However, emerging challenges such as scalability, reproducibility, stability, long-term biodistribution, and clinical translatability are systematically analyzed. By synthesizing mechanistic insights, translational progress, and future directions, this review provides a roadmap for leveraging vitamin biology to engineer next-generation nanomedicines for precision cancer management.

This study explores the development and characterization of iron oxide nanoclusters (NCs) functionalized with vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) for targeted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of early atherosclerotic lesions. The NCs were synthesized via a high-temperature polyol method and functionalized using 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide/N-hydroxysuccinimide (EDC/NHS) chemistry to enable conjugation with VCAM-1 antibodies. Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy TEM confirmed controlled growth of NCs with a size ranging from 40 nm, in the parent to 110 nm post-functionalization, maintaining though colloidal stability in aqueous media. Cytotoxicity assays using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) demonstrated high biocompatibility. Confocal and electron microscopy confirmed specific binding of VCAM-1-NCs to VCAM-1-overexpressing MSCs under inflammatory conditions, with internalization through the endolysosomal pathway. The functionalized NCs remained bound under shear stress in an orbital flow model, mimicking early atherosclerotic conditions. MRI phantom analysis demonstrated preserved contrast capability despite increased T₂* relaxation times following antibody conjugation. These findings highlight the potential of VCAM-1-NCs as noninvasive imaging agents for early-stage atherosclerosis and vascular inflammation. Although this study is limited by the lack of in vivo validation and therapeutic evaluation, it provides a strong foundation for future translational research.