Overseas Chinese gardens: Localizing “harmony between humans and nature” across four case studies over 40 years (1980s–2020s)

Abstract

Despite the growing number and great variety of overseas Chinese gardens developed over the past four decades, a fundamental question persists that influences decision-making at every stage of such collaborative projects: how can the classical philosophy of “harmony between humans and nature” be interpreted in international contexts characterized by varied cultural and institutional systems? This article critically reviews the key essence of human–nature relationships underlying the design, construction, and adaptation of overseas Chinese gardens in response to practical conditions and constraints. Through comparative analysis of four selected cases spanning 40 years, the study examines the main changes in project focus, patterns, and influential factors, as well as the shared foundations that contribute to the vitality and sustainability of these gardens. The findings reveal that the concept of “harmony” has been redefined to balance complex relationships with the natural environment and among stakeholders and visitors throughout the whole process, from design to construction and operation. This redefinition reflects a broader transformation that emphasizes diversifying funding sources, engaging the public through lived experiences, and prioritizing long-term operational sustainability. Moreover, the growing emphasis on an open, inclusive, and green approach to growth and living has become a shared international goal, aligning with the philosophy of harmony in Chinese gardens and positions their internationalization as a potentially valuable element in urban planning, contributing to sustainability, equity, and quality of life in contemporary society.

Keywords

Internationalization / Suzhou classical gardens / Traditional and modern values / Human experience and active engagement / Local adaptation and innovation

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude for all the generous help and support received in the process of conducting the research and preparing the paper, including the support in data, graph, and information collection, and valuable comments and suggestions made by the institutions and professionals in the relevant fields. In particular, special thanks are given to Mr. Weiming Bao and Mr. Cunhai Ji from Suzhou Garden Group; Ms. Fengchun He, Ms. Sixian Shen, and Mr. Aihua Xie from Suzhou Institute of Landscape Architecture Design Co., Ltd.; Ms Ying Zhou and Mr. Zixiao Qin from Dutch Sino Business Promotions B.V. (DSBP); and Ms. Venus Sun and Ms. Lilly Joynes from Lan Su Chinese Garden.

Funding

None.

Conflict of interest

Yunqing Xu is an Editorial Board Member of this journal but was not in any way involved in the editorial and peer-review process conducted for this paper, directly or indirectly. Separately, other authors declared that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: Yunqing Xu Investigation: All authors Writing-original draft: Chunhui Lin, Yinan Li Writing-review & editing: Yunqing Xu

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethics approval and verbal consent have been obtained.

Consent for publication

Informed consent of participants was obtained for publishing their data/interviews in this paper.

Availability of data

Readers are free to use the data presented in the paper.

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