Advances in 3D printing for polymer composites: A review

Abstract

The potential of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology in the fabrication of advanced polymer composites is becoming increasingly evident. This review discusses the latest research developments and applications of 3D printing in polymer composites. First, it focuses on the optimization of 3D printing technology, that is, by upgrading the equipment or components or adjusting the printing parameters, to make them more adaptable to the processing characteristics of polymer composites and to improve the comprehensive performance of the products. Second, it focuses on the 3D printable novel consumables for polymer composites, which mainly include the new printing filaments, printing inks, photosensitive resins, and printing powders, introducing the unique properties of the new consumables and different ways to apply them to 3D printing. Finally, the applications of 3D printing technology in the preparation of functional polymer composites (such as thermal conductivity, electromagnetic interference shielding, biomedicine, self-healing, and environmental responsiveness) are explored, with a focus on the distribution of the functional fillers and the influence of the topological shapes on the properties and functional characteristics of the 3D printed products. The aim of this review is to deepen the understanding of the convergence between 3D printing technology and polymer composites and to anticipate future trends and applications.

Keywords

3D printing / functional properties / new consumables / polymer composites

References

[1] Lü X, Tang H, Wang H, Meng X, Li F. Ultra-soft thermal self-healing liquid-metal-foamed composite with high thermal conductivity. Compos Sci Technol. 2022;226:109523.

[2] Sun J, Ye D, Zou J, et al. A review on additive manufacturing of ceramic matrix composites. J Mater Sci Technol. 2023;138:1-16.

[3] Li Z, Deng L, Kinloch IA, Young RJ. Raman spectroscopy of carbon materials and their composites: graphene, nanotubes and fibres. Prog Mater Sci. 2023;135:101089.

[4] Yadav R, Singh M, Shekhawat D, Lee SY, Park SJ. The role of fillers to enhance the mechanical, thermal, and wear characteristics of polymer composite materials: a review. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2023;175:107775.

[5] Kumar Sharma A, Bhandari R, Sharma C, Krishna Dhakad S, Pinca BC. Polymer matrix composites: a state of art review. Mater Today Proc. 2022;57:2330-2333.

[6] Liu BW, Zhao HB, Wang YZ. Advanced flame-retardant methods for polymeric materials. Adv Mater. 2022;34(46):2107905.

[7] Dong X, Wan B, Zheng MS, et al. Dual-effect coupling for superior dielectric and thermal conductivity of polyimide composite films featuring “crystal-like phase” structure. Adv Mater. 2023;36(7):2307804.

[8] Liu L, Zhu M, Xu X, et al. Dynamic nanoconfinement enabled highly stretchable and supratough polymeric materials with desirable healability and biocompatibility. Adv Mater. 2021;33(51):2105829.

[9] Chen P, Wang H, Su J, et al. Recent advances on high-performance polyaryletherketone materials for additive manufacturing. Adv Mater. 2022;34(52):2200750.

[10] Mazur F, Pham AH, Chandrawati R. Polymer materials as catalysts for medical, environmental, and energy applications. Appl Mater Today. 2023;35:101937.

[11] Teo AJT, Mishra A, Park I, Kim YJ, Park WT, Yoon YJ. Polymeric biomaterials for medical implants and devices. ACS Biomater Sci Eng. 2016;2(4):454-472.

[12] Zhang Z, Geng Y, Cao S, et al. Ultraviolet photodetectors based on polymer microwire arrays toward wearable medical devices. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2022;14(36):41257-41263.

[13] Dou J, Tang L, Mou L, Zhang R, Jiang X. Stretchable conductive adhesives for connection of electronics in wearable devices based on metal-polymer conductors and carbon nanotubes. Compos Sci Technol. 2020;197:108237.

[14] Xu Y, Kraemer D, Song B, et al. Nanostructured polymer films with metal-like thermal conductivity. Nat Commun. 2019;10(1):1771.

[15] Hao M, Qian X, Zhang Y, et al. Thermal conductivity enhancement of carbon fiber/epoxy composites via constructing three-dimensionally aligned hybrid thermal conductive structures on fiber surfaces. Compos Sci Technol. 2023;231:109800.

[16] Liang HQ, Ji KJ, Zha LY, Hu WB, Ou Y, Xu ZK. Polymer membranes with vertically oriented pores constructed by 2D freezing at ambient temperature. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2016;8(22):14174-14181.

[17] Liang C, Qiu H, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Gu J. External field-assisted techniques for polymer matrix composites with electromagnetic interference shielding. Sci Bull. 2023;68(17):1938-1953.

[18] Monie F, Vidil T, Grignard B, Cramail H, Detrembleur C. Self-foaming polymers: opportunities for the next generation of personal protective equipment. Mater Sci Eng R Rep. 2021;145:100628.

[19] Guo Y, Ruan K, Shi X, Yang X, Gu J. Factors affecting thermal conductivities of the polymers and polymer composites: a review. Compos Sci Technol. 2020;193:108134.

[20] Ruan K, Shi X, Guo Y, Gu J. Interfacial thermal resistance in thermally conductive polymer composites: a review. Compos Commun. 2020;22:100518.

[21] Wang Y, Xu C, Liu J, Pan H, Li Y, Mei D. Acoustic-assisted 3D printing based on acoustofluidic microparticles patterning for conductive polymer composites fabrication. Addit Manuf. 2022;60:103247.

[22] Wang C, Gong K, Yu B, Zhou K. Rare earth-based flame retardants for polymer composites: status and challenges. Compos B Eng. 2023;265:110935.

[23] Zhang B, Li H, Cheng J, et al. Shape-memory polymers: mechanically robust and UV-curable shape-memory polymers for digital light processing based 4D printing. Adv Mater. 2021;33(27):2170210.

[24] Lee H, Wang Z, Rao Q, et al. Additive manufacturing of thermoelectric microdevices for 4D thermometry. Adv Mater. 2023;35(35):2301704.

[25] Guzzi EA, Tibbitt MW. Additive manufacturing of precision biomaterials. Adv Mater. 2020;32(13):1901994.

[26] Egorov V, Gulzar U, Zhang Y, Breen S, O'Dwyer C. Evolution of 3D printing methods and materials for electrochemical energy storage. Adv Mater. 2020;32(29):2000556.

[27] Cheng Y, Chan KH, Wang XQ, et al. Direct-ink-write 3D printing of hydrogels into biomimetic soft robots. ACS Nano. 2019;13(11):13176-13184.

[28] Zhang L, Huang X, Cole T, et al. 3D-printed liquid metal polymer composites as NIR-responsive 4D printing soft robot. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):7815.

[29] Bayat M, Zinovieva O, Ferrari F, et al. Holistic computational design within additive manufacturing through topology optimization combined with multiphysics multi-scale materials and process modelling. Prog Mater Sci. 2023;138:101129.

[30] Aabith S, Caulfield R, Akhlaghi O, Papadopoulou A, Homer-Vanniasinkam S, Tiwari MK. 3D direct-write printing of water soluble micromoulds for high-resolution rapid prototyping. Addit Manuf. 2022;58:103019.

[31] Church KH, Crane NB, Deffenbaugh PI, et al. Multimaterial and multilayer direct digital manufacturing of 3-D structural microwave electronics. Proc IEEE. 2017;105(4):688-701.

[32] Zhong K, Liu Z, Wang F. Development of CO₂ curable 3D printing materials. Addit Manuf. 2023;65:103442.

[33] Zhang J, Wang J, Dong S, Yu X, Han B. A review of the current progress and application of 3D printed concrete. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2019;125:105533.

[34] Elsayed H, Gobbin F, Picicco M, Italiano A, Colombo P. Additive manufacturing of inorganic components using a geopolymer and binder jetting. Addit Manuf. 2022;56:102909.

[35] Ghanem MA, Basu A, Behrou R, et al. The role of polymer mechanochemistry in responsive materials and additive manufacturing. Nat Rev Mater. 2021;6(1):84-98.

[36] Markandan K, Lai CQ. Fabrication, properties and applications of polymer composites additively manufactured with filler alignment control: a review. Compos B Eng. 2023;256:110661.

[37] Cao X, Xuan S, Gao Y, Lou C, Deng H, Gong X. 3D printing ultraflexible magnetic actuators via screw extrusion method. Adv Sci. 2022;9(16):2200898.

[38] Mitra I, Bose S, Dernell WS, et al. 3D printing in alloy design to improve biocompatibility in metallic implants. Mater Today. 2021;45:20-34.

[39] Zawaski C, Williams C. Design of a low-cost, high-temperature inverted build environment to enable desktop-scale additive manufacturing of performance polymers. Addit Manuf. 2020;33:101111.

[40] Yang C, Tian X, Li D, Cao Y, Zhao F, Shi C. Influence of thermal processing conditions in 3D printing on the crystallinity and mechanical properties of PEEK material. J Mater Process Technol. 2017;248:1-7.

[41] Mahshid R, Isfahani MN, Heidari Rarani M, Mirkhalaf M. Recent advances in development of additively manufactured thermosets and fiber reinforced thermosetting composites: technologies, materials, and mechanical properties. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2023;171:107584.

[42] Layani M, Wang X, Magdassi S. Novel materials for 3D printing by photopolymerization. Adv Mater. 2018;30(41):1706344.

[43] Zhang S, Gao Q, Zhang Y, et al. 3D printing thermoplastic polyurethane hierarchical cellular foam with outstanding energy absorption capability. Addit Manuf. 2023;76:103770.

[44] Siddique SH, Hazell PJ, Wang H, Escobedo JP, Ameri AAH. Lessons from nature: 3D printed bio-inspired porous structures for impact energy absorption—a review. Addit Manuf. 2022;58:103051.

[45] Tan LJ, Zhu W, Zhou K. Recent progress on polymer materials for additive manufacturing. Adv Funct Mater. 2020;30(43):2003062.

[46] Mostafaei A, Elliott AM, Barnes JE, et al. Binder jet 3D printing—process parameters, materials, properties, modeling, and challenges. Prog Mater Sci. 2021;119:100707.

[47] Bragaglia M, Cecchini F, Paleari L, Ferrara M, Rinaldi M, Nanni F. Modeling the fracture behavior of 3D-printed PLA as a laminate composite: influence of printing parameters on failure and mechanical properties. Compos Struct. 2023;322:117379.

[48] Klippstein H, De Cerio D, Sanchez A, Hassanin H, Zweiri Y, Seneviratne L. Fused deposition modeling for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs): a review. Adv Eng Mater. 2018;20(2):1700552.

[49] Peterson AM. Review of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene in fused filament fabrication: a plastics engineering-focused perspective. Addit Manuf. 2019;27:363-371.

[50] Truby RL, Lewis JA. Printing soft matter in three dimensions. Nature. 2016;540(7633):371-378.

[51] Saadi MASR, Maguire A, Pottackal NT, et al. Direct ink writing: a 3D printing technology for diverse materials. Adv Mater. 2022;34(28):2108855.

[52] Košir T, Slavič J. Manufacturing of single-process 3D-printed piezoelectric sensors with electromagnetic protection using thermoplastic material extrusion. Addit Manuf. 2023;73:103699.

[53] Yao Z, Yuan W, Xu J, et al. Magnesium-encapsulated injectable hydrogel and 3D-engineered polycaprolactone conduit facilitate peripheral nerve regeneration. Adv Sci. 2022;9(21):2202102.

[54] Cano Vicent A, Tambuwala MM, Hassan SS, et al. Fused deposition modelling: current status, methodology, applications and future prospects. Addit Manuf. 2021;47:102378.

[55] De Maio F, Rosa E, Perini G, et al. 3D-printed graphene polylactic acid devices resistant to SARS-CoV-2: sunlight-mediated sterilization of additive manufactured objects. Carbon. 2022;194:34-41.

[56] Cheng H, Tang M, Zhang J, et al. Effects of rCF attributes and FDM-3D printing parameters on the mechanical properties of rCFRP. Compos B Eng. 2024;270:111122.

[57] Parker M, Inthavong A, Law E, et al. 3D printing of continuous carbon fiber reinforced polyphenylene sulfide: exploring printability and importance of fiber volume fraction. Addit Manuf. 2022;54:102763.

[58] Terekhina S, Egorov S, Tarasova T, Skornyakov I, Guillaumat L, Hattali ML. In-nozzle impregnation of continuous textile flax fiber/polyamide 6 composite during FFF process. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2022;153:106725.

[59] Peng X, Zhang M, Guo Z, Sang L, Hou W. Investigation of processing parameters on tensile performance for FDM-printed carbon fiber reinforced polyamide 6 composites. Compos Commun. 2020;22:100478.

[60] Li H, Liu B, Ge L, Chen Y, Zheng H, Fang D. Mechanical performances of continuous carbon fiber reinforced PLA composites printed in vacuum. Compos B Eng. 2021;225:109277.

[61] Zaldivar RJ, McLouth TD, Patel DN, Severino JV, Kim HI. Strengthening of plasma treated 3D printed ABS through epoxy infiltration. Prog Addit Manuf. 2017;2(4):193-200.

[62] Yang G, Sun Y, Limin Q, et al. Direct-ink-writing (DIW) 3D printing functional composite materials based on supra-molecular interaction. Compos Sci Technol. 2021;215:109013.

[63] Zhu F, Cheng L, Wang ZJ, et al. 3D-printed Ultratough hydrogel structures with titin-like domains. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2017;9(13):11363-11367.

[64] Zhang Y, Dong Z, Li C, et al. Continuous 3D printing from one single droplet. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):4685.

[65] Zhu Z, Park HS, McAlpine MC. 3D printed deformable sensors. Sci Adv. 2020;6(25):eaba5575.

[66] Marzi J, Fuhrmann E, Brauchle E, et al. Non-invasive three-dimensional cell analysis in bioinks by Raman imaging. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2022;14(27):30455-30465.

[67] Menon A, Póczos B, Feinberg AW, Washburn NR. Optimization of silicone 3D printing with hierarchical machine learning. 3D Print Addit Manuf. 2019;6(4):181-189.

[68] Huang J, Segura LJ, Wang T, Zhao G, Sun H, Zhou C. Unsupervised learning for the droplet evolution prediction and process dynamics understanding in inkjet printing. Addit Manuf. 2020;35:101197.

[69] Yang Q, Li H, Li M, et al. Rayleigh instability-assisted satellite droplets elimination in inkjet printing. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2017;9(47):41521-41528.

[70] Shi J, Song J, Song B, Lu WF. Multi-objective optimization design through machine learning for drop-on-demand bioprinting. Engineering. 2019;5(3):586-593.

[71] Nair S, Panda S, Tripathi A, Neithalath N. Relating print velocity and extrusion characteristics of 3D-printable cementitious binders: implications towards testing methods. Addit Manuf. 2021;46:102127.

[72] Yuk H, Lu B, Lin S, et al. 3D printing of conducting polymers. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1604.

[73] Sun Y, Wang L, Ni Y, et al. 3D printing of thermosets with diverse rheological and functional applicabilities. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):245.

[74] Yao G, Xiang H, Lucas M, et al. Sound continuous production of thermosets. Adv Funct Mater. 2024;34(12):2312736.

[75] Farahani RD, Dubé M, Therriault D. Three-dimensional printing of multifunctional nanocomposites: manufacturing techniques and applications. Adv Mater. 2016;28(28):5794-5821.

[76] Melchels FP, Feijen J, Grijpma DW. A review on stereolithography and its applications in biomedical engineering. Biomaterials. 2010;31(24):6121-6130.

[77] Tumbleston JR, Shirvanyants D, Ermoshkin N, et al. Continuous liquid interface production of 3D objects. Science. 2015;347(6228):1349-1352.

[78] Suzuki Y, Tahara H, Michihata M, Takamasu K, Takahashi S. Evanescent light exposing system under nitrogen purge for nano-stereolithography. Proc CIRP. 2016;42:77-80.

[79] Zhou X, Hou Y, Lin J. A review on the processing accuracy of two-photon polymerization. AIP Adv. 2015;5(3):030701.

[80] Köhler J, Ksouri SI, Esen C, Ostendorf A. Optical screw-wrench for microassembly. Microsyst Nanoeng. 2017;3(1):16083.

[81] Janusziewicz R, Tumbleston JR, Quintanilla AL, Mecham SJ, DeSimone JM. Layerless fabrication with continuous liquid interface production. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2016;113(42):11703-11708.

[82] Hsiao K, Lee BJ, Samuelsen T, et al. Single-digit-micrometer-resolution continuous liquid interface production. Sci Adv. 2022;8(46):eabq2846.

[83] Nagalingam AP, Gopasetty SK, Wang J, Yuvaraj HK, Gopinath A, Yeo SH. Comparative fatigue analysis of wrought and laser powder bed fused Ti–6Al–4V for aerospace repairs: academic and industrial insights. Int J Fatigue. 2023;176:107879.

[84] Marques A, Cunha A, Gasik M, Carvalho O, Silva FS, Bartolomeu F. 3D multi-material laser powder bed fusion: Ti6Al4V–CuNi₂SiCr parts for aerospace applications. Prog Addit Manuf. 2024;9(2):391-400.

[85] Jam A, du Plessis A, Lora C, Raghavendra S, Pellizzari M, Benedetti M. Manufacturability of lattice structures fabricated by laser powder bed fusion: a novel biomedical application of the beta Ti–21S alloy. Addit Manuf. 2022;50:102556.

[86] Liu J, Liu B, Min S, et al. Biodegradable magnesium alloy WE43 porous scaffolds fabricated by laser powder bed fusion for orthopedic applications: process optimization, in vitro and in vivo investigation. Bioact Mater. 2022;16:301-319.

[87] Zhao N, Parthasarathy M, Patil S, et al. Direct additive manufacturing of metal parts for automotive applications. J Manuf Syst. 2023;68:368-375.

[88] Priarone PC, Catalano AR, Settineri L. Additive manufacturing for the automotive industry: on the life-cycle environmental implications of material substitution and lightweighting through re-design. Prog Addit Manuf. 2023;8(6):1229-1240.

[89] Gaikwad A, Williams RJ, de Winton H, et al. Multi phenomena melt pool sensor data fusion for enhanced process monitoring of laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Mater Des. 2022;221:110919.

[90] Sahar T, Rauf M, Murtaza A, et al. Anomaly detection in laser powder bed fusion using machine learning: a review. Results Eng. 2023;17:100803.

[91] Gibson I, Shi D. Material properties and fabrication parameters in selective laser sintering process. Rapid Prototyp J. 1997;3(4):129-136.

[92] Monfared V, Bakhsheshi Rad HR, Ramakrishna S, Razzaghi M, Berto F. A brief review on additive manufacturing of polymeric composites and nanocomposites. Micromachines. 2021;12(6):704.

[93] Provaggi E, Leong JJH, Kalaskar DM. Applications of 3D printing in the management of severe spinal conditions. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part H J Eng Med. 2016;231(6):471-486.

[94] Mani M, Lane BM, Donmez MA, Feng SC, Moylan SP. A review on measurement science needs for real-time control of additive manufacturing metal powder bed fusion processes. Int J Prod Res. 2017;55(5):1400-1418.

[95] Malekipour E, El Mounayri H. Common defects and contributing parameters in powder bed fusion AM process and their classification for online monitoring and control: a review. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 2018;95(1):527-550.

[96] Mahesh M, Wong YS, Fuh JYH, Loh HT. Benchmarking for comparative evaluation of RP systems and processes. Rapid Prototyp J. 2004;10(2):123-135.

[97] Mahesh M, Wong YS, Fuh JYH, Loh HT. A six-sigma approach for benchmarking of RP&M processes. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 2006;31(3):374-387.

[98] Yasa E, Deckers J, Kruth JP. The investigation of the influence of laser re-melting on density, surface quality and microstructure of selective laser melting parts. Rapid Prototyp J. 2011;17(5):312-327.

[99] Kruth JP, Deckers J, Yasa E, Wauthlé R. Assessing and comparing influencing factors of residual stresses in selective laser melting using a novel analysis method. Proc Inst Mech Eng B J Eng Manuf. 2012;226(6):980-991.

[100] Yadroitsev I, Krakhmalev P, Yadroitsava I. Selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V alloy for biomedical applications: temperature monitoring and microstructural evolution. J Alloys Compd. 2014;583:404-409.

[101] Yadroitsev I, Smurov I. Selective laser melting technology: from the single laser melted track stability to 3D parts of complex shape. Phys Proc. 2010;5:551-560.

[102] Mercelis P, Kruth JP. Residual stresses in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. Rapid Prototyp J. 2006;12(5):254-265.

[103] Bevans B, Barrett C, Spears T, et al. Heterogeneous sensor data fusion for multiscale, shape agnostic flaw detection in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Virtual Phys Prototyp. 2023;18(1):e2196266.

[104] Elkaseer A, Chen KJ, Janhsen JC, Refle O, Hagenmeyer V, Scholz SG. Material jetting for advanced applications: a state-of-the-art review, gaps and future directions. Addit Manuf. 2022;60:103270.

[105] Habib FN, Iovenitti P, Masood SH, Nikzad M. Fabrication of polymeric lattice structures for optimum energy absorption using multi jet fusion technology. Mater Des. 2018;155:86-98.

[106] Liashenko I, Rosell Llompart J, Cabot A. Ultrafast 3D printing with submicrometer features using electrostatic jet deflection. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):753.

[107] Fisher C, Skolrood LN, Li K, Joshi PC, Aytug T. Aerosol-jet printed sensors for environmental, safety, and health monitoring: a review. Adv Mater Technol. 2023;8(15):2300030.

[108] Jung W, Jung Y-H, Pikhitsa PV, et al. Three-dimensional nanoprinting via charged aerosol jets. Nature. 2021;592(7852):54-59.

[109] Li M, Zhou S, Cheng L, et al. 3D printed supercapacitor: techniques, materials, designs, and applications. Adv Funct Mater. 2023;33(1):2208034.

[110] Jambhulkar S, Ravichandran D, Thippanna V, Patil D, Song K. A multimaterial 3D printing-assisted micropatterning for heat dissipation applications. Adv Compos Hybrid Mater. 2023;6(3):93.

[111] Bezek LB, Williams CB. Process-structure-property effects of ultraviolet curing in multi-material jetting additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf. 2023;73:103640.

[112] Nanthananon P, Tanodekaew S, Tesavibul P, Manotham S, Kaewkong P, Channasanon S. Enhancing the mechanical properties of photosensitive binder jetting PLA via dual curing and thermal treatment. J Appl Polym Sci. 2022;139(15):51942.

[113] Prashantha K, Roger F. Multifunctional properties of 3D printed poly(lactic acid)/graphene nanocomposites by fused deposition modeling. J Macromol Sci A. 2017;54(1):24-29.

[114] Seetala K, Clower W, Wilson CG. Electrochemical enhancement of carbon black-infused poly(lactic acid) filament for additive manufactured electronic applications. Addit Manuf. 2023;61:103283.

[115] Bertolino M, Battegazzore D, Arrigo R, Frache A. Designing 3D printable polypropylene: material and process optimisation through rheology. Addit Manuf. 2021;40:101944.

[116] Huang H, Liu W, Liu Z. An additive manufacturing-based approach for carbon fiber reinforced polymer recycling. CIRP Ann. 2020;69(1):33-36.

[117] Yang Y, Wang Z, He Q, et al. 3D printing of nacre-inspired structures with exceptional mechanical and flame-retardant properties. Research. 2022.

[118] Li X, Zhang JM, Yi X, Huang Z, Lv P, Duan H. Multimaterial microfluidic 3D printing of textured composites with liquid inclusions. Adv Sci. 2019;6(3):1800730.

[119] Nguyen NA, Barnes SH, Bowland CC, et al. A path for lignin valorization via additive manufacturing of high-performance sustainable composites with enhanced 3D printability. Sci Adv. 2018;4(12):eaat4967.

[120] Goulas A, McGhee JR, Whittaker T, et al. Synthesis and dielectric characterisation of a low loss BaSrTiO₃/ABS ceramic/polymer composite for fused filament fabrication additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf. 2022;55:102844.

[121] Mills DK, Jammalamadaka U, Tappa K, Weisman J. Studies on the cytocompatibility, mechanical and antimicrobial properties of 3D printed poly(methyl methacrylate) beads. Bioact Mater. 2018;3(2):157-166.

[122] Madhu NR, Erfani H, Jadoun S, Amir M, Thiagarajan Y, Chauhan NPS. Fused deposition modelling approach using 3D printing and recycled industrial materials for a sustainable environment: a review. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 2022;122(5):2125-2138.

[123] Qiu Z, Zheng B, Xu J, Chen J, Chen L. 3D-printing of oxidized starch-based hydrogels with superior hydration properties. Carbohydr Polym. 2022;292:119686.

[124] Ju Q, Tang Z, Shi H, Zhu Y, Shen Y, Wang T. Thermoplastic starch based blends as a highly renewable filament for fused deposition modeling 3D printing. Int J Biol Macromol. 2022;219:175-184.

[125] Kim H, Kim J, Ryu KH, et al. Embedded direct ink writing 3D printing of UV curable resin/sepiolite composites with nano orientation. ACS Omega. 2023;8(26):23554-23565.

[126] Chen J, Zhao L, Zhou K. Multi-jet fusion 3D voxel printing of conductive elastomers. Adv Mater. 2022;34(47):2205909.

[127] Guiney LM, Mansukhani ND, Jakus AE, Wallace SG, Shah RN, Hersam MC. Three-dimensional printing of cytocompatible, thermally conductive hexagonal boron nitride nanocomposites. Nano Lett. 2018;18(6):3488-3493.

[128] Zheng M, Guo Q, Yin X, et al. Direct ink writing of recyclable and in situ repairable photothermal polyurethane for sustainable 3D printing development. J Mater Chem A. 2021;9(11):6981-6992.

[129] Hossain SS, Son HJ, Gao B, Park S, Bae CJ. Development of tri-modal-pore architecture of silica monolith via extrusion-based 3D printing and employing rice husk ash. Mater Today Commun. 2023;34:105246.

[130] Porwal MK, Hausladen MM, Ellison CJ, Reineke TM. Biobased and degradable thiol–ene networks from levoglucosan for sustainable 3D printing. Green Chem. 2023;25(4):1488-1502.

[131] Dorishetty P, Balu R, Gelmi A, Mata JP, Dutta NK, Choudhury NR. 3D printable soy/silk hybrid hydrogels for tissue engineering applications. Biomacromolecules. 2021;22(9):3668-3678.

[132] Fei J, Rong Y, Zhu L, et al. Progress in photocurable 3D printing of photosensitive polyurethane: a review. Macromol Rapid Commun. 2023;44(18):2300211.

[133] Chen F, Li R, Sun J, et al. Photo-curing 3D printing robust elastomers with ultralow viscosity resin. J Appl Polym Sci. 2021;138(10):49965.

[134] Xu W, Jambhulkar S, Zhu Y, et al. 3D printing for polymer/particle-based processing: a review. Compos B Eng. 2021;223:109102.

[135] Zhou Z, Zhou X, Yuan X, Li B, Song Y, Liu M. Solventless 3D printed high-temperature resistant cyclosiloxane-containing resin for low-shrinkage ceramization and nano-functional composite development. Mater Des. 2023;227:111740.

[136] Blyweert P, Nicolas V, Fierro V, Celzard A. 3D-printed carbons with improved properties and oxidation resistance. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2023;11(21):8055-8064.

[137] Liu W, Wu H, Xu Y, Lin L, Li Y, Wu S. Cutting performance and wear mechanism of zirconia toughened alumina ceramic cutting tools formed by vat photopolymerization-based 3D printing. Ceram Int. 2023;49(14):23238-23247.

[138] Li Y, Kankala RK, Weng Z, Wu L. Dual-cure vapor-grown carbon nanofiber-supplemented 3D-printed resin: implications for improved stiffness and thermal resistance. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2022;5(7):9544-9553.

[139] Markandan K, Lai CQ. Enhanced mechanical properties of 3D printed graphene-polymer composite lattices at very low graphene concentrations. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2020;129:105726.

[140] Weng Z, Zhou Y, Lin W, Senthil T, Wu L. Structure-property relationship of nano enhanced stereolithography resin for desktop SLA 3D printer. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2016;88:234-242.

[141] Yugang D, Yuan Z, Yiping T, Dichen L. Nano-TiO₂-modified photosensitive resin for RP. Rapid Prototyp J. 2011;17(4):247-252.

[142] Vidakis N, Petousis M, Velidakis E, et al. Investigation of the biocidal performance of multi-functional resin/copper nanocomposites with superior mechanical response in SLA 3D printing. Biomimetics. 2022;7(1):8.

[143] Chen S, Yu L, Zhang S, et al. Synergistic strengthening and toughening of 3D printing photosensitive resin by bismaleimide and acrylic liquid-crystal resin. J Sci Adv Mater Devices. 2023;8(3):100565.

[144] Yang Z, Shan J, Huang Y, et al. Preparation and mechanism of free-radical/cationic hybrid photosensitive resin with high tensile strength for three-dimensional printing applications. J Appl Polym Sci. 2021;138(8):49881.

[145] Hernandez JJ, Dobson AL, Carberry BJ, et al. Controlled degradation of cast and 3-D printed photocurable thioester networks via thiol–thioester exchange. Macromolecules. 2022;55(4):1376-1385.

[146] Voet VSD, Guit J, Loos K. Sustainable photopolymers in 3D printing: a review on biobased, biodegradable, and recyclable alternatives. Macromol Rapid Commun. 2021;42(3):2000475.

[147] Wu B, Sufi A, Ghosh Biswas R, et al. Direct conversion of McDonald's waste cooking oil into a biodegradable high-resolution 3D-printing resin. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2020;8(2):1171-1177.

[148] Bagheri A. Application of RAFT in 3D printing: where are the future opportunities? Macromolecules. 2023;56(5):1778-1797.

[149] Zhao B, Li J, Li Z, et al. Photoinduced 3D printing through a combination of cationic and radical RAFT polymerization. Macromolecules. 2022;55(16):7181-7192.

[150] Shaukat U, Rossegger E, Schlögl S. A review of multi-material 3D printing of functional materials via vat photopolymerization. Polymers. 2022;14(12):2449.

[151] Shetty S, Nandish BT, Amin V, et al. 3D printed polyether ether ketone (PEEK), polyamide (PA) and its evaluation of mechanical properties and its uses in healthcare applications. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2022;1224(1):012005.

[152] Chen J, Tan P, Liu X, et al. High-strength light-weight aramid fibre/polyamide 12 composites printed by multi jet fusion. Virtual Phys Prototyp. 2022;17(2):295-307.

[153] Sun S, Fei G, Wang X, et al. Covalent adaptable networks of polydimethylsiloxane elastomer for selective laser sintering 3D printing. Chem Eng J. 2021;412:128675.

[154] Hou Y, Gao M, An R, et al. Surface modification of oriented glass fibers for improving the mechanical properties and flame retardancy of polyamide 12 composites printed by powder bed fusion. Addit Manuf. 2023;62:103195.

[155] Pelanconi M, Bottacin S, Colombo P, Ortona A. Powder bed fusion of polyamide powders combined with different preceramic polymers infiltration and pyrolysis to produce complex-shaped ceramics. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2023;43(14):5871-5881.

[156] Mu X, Agostinacchio F, Xiang N, et al. Recent advances in 3D printing with protein-based inks. Prog Polym Sci. 2021;115:101375.

[157] Yu G, Ma J, Li J, Wu J, Yu J, Wang X. Mechanical and tribological properties of 3D printed polyamide 12 and SiC/PA12 composite by selective laser sintering. Polymers. 2022;14(11):2167.

[158] Hupfeld T, Salamon S, Landers J, et al. 3D printing of magnetic parts by laser powder bed fusion of iron oxide nanoparticle functionalized polyamide powders. J Mater Chem C. 2020;8(35):12204-12217.

[159] Chyr G, DeSimone JM. Review of high-performance sustainable polymers in additive manufacturing. Green Chem. 2023;25(2):453-466.

[160] Gorji NE, Saxena P, Corfield M, et al. A new method for assessing the recyclability of powders within powder bed fusion process. Mater Charact. 2020;161:110167.

[161] Wilts EM, Long TE. Sustainable additive manufacturing: predicting binder jettability of water-soluble, biodegradable and recyclable polymers. Polym Int. 2021;70(7):958-963.

[162] Guo A, Wang J, Tang R, et al. Insights into the effects of epoxy resin infiltration on powder aging issue induced by powder recycling in powder bed fusion of Nylon12 materials. J Mater Res Technol. 2023;23:3151-3165.

[163] Li MD, Shen XQ, Chen X, et al. Thermal management of chips by a device prototype using synergistic effects of 3-D heat-conductive network and electrocaloric refrigeration. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1):5849.

[164] Lin Y, Kang Q, Wei H, et al. Spider web-inspired graphene skeleton-based high thermal conductivity phase change nanocomposites for battery thermal management. Nano-Micro Lett. 2021;13(1):180.

[165] Chen J, Huang X, Sun B, Jiang P. Highly thermally conductive yet electrically insulating polymer/boron nitride nanosheets nanocomposite films for improved thermal management capability. ACS Nano. 2019;13(1):337-345.

[166] Sun X, Zhang L, Liao S. Performance of a thermoelectric cooling system integrated with a gravity-assisted heat pipe for cooling electronics. Appl Therm Eng. 2017;116:433-444.

[167] Liu D, Zhao FY, Yang HX, Tang GF. Thermoelectric mini cooler coupled with micro thermosiphon for CPU cooling system. Energy. 2015;83:29-36.

[168] Lawag RA, Ali HM. Phase change materials for thermal management and energy storage: a review. J Energy Storage. 2022;55:105602.

[169] Lin Y, Deng W, Rui Y, Liu Y, Lu G, Liu J. Enhanced thermal conductivity of epoxy acrylate/h-BN and AlN composites by photo-curing 3D printing technology. J Appl Polym Sci. 2022;139(29):e52629.

[170] Ma T, Ma H, Ruan K, et al. Thermally conductive poly(lactic acid) composites with superior electromagnetic shielding performances via 3D printing technology. Chin J Polym Sci. 2022;40(3):248-255.

[171] Liu J, Li W, Guo Y, Zhang H, Zhang Z. Improved thermal conductivity of thermoplastic polyurethane via aligned boron nitride platelets assisted by 3D printing. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2019;120:140-146.

[172] Shmueli Y, Lin YC, Zuo X, et al. In-situ x-ray scattering study of isotactic polypropylene/graphene nanocomposites under shear during fused deposition modeling 3D printing. Compos Sci Technol. 2020;196:108227.

[173] Xu W, Jambhulkar S, Ravichandran D, et al. 3D printing-enabled nanoparticle alignment: a review of mechanisms and applications. Small. 2021;17(45):2100817.

[174] Wickramasinghe S, Do T, Tran P. FDM-based 3D printing of polymer and associated composite: a review on mechanical properties, defects and treatments. Polymers. 2020;12(7):1529.

[175] Jia Y, He H, Geng Y, Huang B, Peng X. High through-plane thermal conductivity of polymer based product with vertical alignment of graphite flakes achieved via 3D printing. Compos Sci Technol. 2017;145:55-61.

[176] Liu J, Yu MY, Yu ZZ, Nicolosi V. Design and advanced manufacturing of electromagnetic interference shielding materials. Mater Today. 2023;66:245-272.

[177] Gao Q, Zhang Y, Zhang S, et al. Hierarchical structured epoxy/reduced graphene oxide/Ni-chains microcellular composite foam for high-performance electromagnetic interference shielding. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2023;170:107536.

[178] Viskadourakis Z, Vasilopoulos KC, Economou EN, Soukoulis CM, Kenanakis G. Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of 3D printed polymer composites. Appl Phys A. 2017;123(12):736.

[179] Xue T, Yang Y, Yu D, et al. 3D printed integrated gradient-conductive MXene/CNT/polyimide aerogel frames for electromagnetic interference shielding with ultra-low reflection. Nano-Micro Lett. 2023;15(1):45.

[180] Wu T, Huan X, Zhang H, Wu L, Sui G, Yang X. The orientation and inhomogeneous distribution of carbon nanofibers and distinctive internal structure in polymer composites induced by 3D-printing enabling electromagnetic shielding regulation. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2023;638:392-402.

[181] Verma P, Bansala T, Chauhan SS, Kumar D, Deveci S, Kumar S. Electromagnetic interference shielding performance of carbon nanostructure reinforced, 3D printed polymer composites. J Mater Sci. 2021;56(20):11769-11788.

[182] Ecco LG, Dul S, Schmitz DP, et al. Rapid prototyping of efficient electromagnetic interference shielding polymer composites via fused deposition modeling. Appl Sci. 2019;9(1):37.

[183] Gong J, Qian Y, Lu K, et al. Digital light processing (DLP) in tissue engineering: from promise to reality, and perspectives. Biomed Mater. 2022;17(6):062004.

[184] Afzali Naniz M, Askari M, Zolfagharian A, Afzali Naniz M, Bodaghi M. 4D printing: a cutting-edge platform for biomedical applications. Biomed Mater. 2022;17(6):062001.

[185] Ramezani M, Mohd RZ. 4D printing in biomedical engineering: advancements, challenges, and future directions. J Funct Biomater. 2023;14(7):347.

[186] Christensen RK, von Halling LC, Kiziltay A, Wilson S, Larsen NB. 3D printed hydrogel multiassay platforms for robust generation of engineered contractile tissues. Biomacromolecules. 2020;21(2):356-365.

[187] Ackland D, Robinson D, Lee PVS, Dimitroulis G. Design and clinical outcome of a novel 3D-printed prosthetic joint replacement for the human temporomandibular joint. Clin Biomech. 2018;56:52-60.

[188] Xu X, Goyanes A, Trenfield SJ, et al. Stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing of a bladder device for intravesical drug delivery. Mater Sci Eng C. 2021;120:111773.

[189] Silva VAOP, Fernandes Junior WS, Rocha DP, et al. 3D-printed reduced graphene oxide/polylactic acid electrodes: a new prototyped platform for sensing and biosensing applications. Biosens Bioelectron. 2020;170:112684.

[190] Ranjan R, Kumar D, Kundu M, Chandra MS. A critical review on classification of materials used in 3D printing process. Mater Today Proc. 2022;61:43-49.

[191] You S, Xiang Y, Hwang HH, et al. High cell density and high-resolution 3D bioprinting for fabricating vascularized tissues. Sci Adv. 2023;9(8):eade7923.

[192] Jia Z, Xu X, Zhu D, Zheng Y. Design, printing, and engineering of regenerative biomaterials for personalized bone healthcare. Prog Mater Sci. 2023;134:101072.

[193] Oladapo BI, Zahedi SA, Ismail SO, et al. 3D printing of PEEK–cHAp scaffold for medical bone implant. Bio-Des Manuf. 2021;4(1):44-59.

[194] Hasanzadeh R, Mihankhah P, Azdast T, Rasouli A, Shamkhali M, Park CB. Biocompatible tissue-engineered scaffold polymers for 3D printing and its application for 4D printing. Chem Eng J. 2023;476:146616.

[195] Dananjaya V, Marimuthu S, Yang R, Grace AN, Abeykoon C. Synthesis, properties, applications, 3D printing and machine learning of graphene quantum dots in polymer nanocomposites. Prog Mater Sci. 2024;144:101282.

[196] Oladapo B, Zahedi A, Ismail S, Fernando W, Ikumapayi O. 3D-printed biomimetic bone implant polymeric composite scaffolds. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 2023;126(9):4259-4267.

[197] de Oliveira MF, da Silva LCE, Catori DM, et al. Photocurable nitric oxide-releasing copolyester for the 3D printing of bioresorbable vascular stents. Macromol Biosci. 2023;23(3):2200448.

[198] Lammel Lindemann J, Dourado IA, Shanklin J, et al. Photocrosslinking-based 3D printing of unsaturated polyesters from isosorbide: a new material for resorbable medical devices. Bioprinting. 2020;18:e00062.

[199] Fang H, Ju J, Chen L, et al. Clay sculpture-inspired 3D printed microcage module using bioadhesion assembly for specific-shaped tissue vascularization and regeneration. Adv Sci. 2024;34:2308381.

[200] Zhou L, Liu H, Zhang B, et al. A novel 3D-printed bi-layer cranial-brain patch promotes brain injury repair and bone tissue regeneration. Adv Funct Mater. 2024;34(18):2314330.

[201] Oladapo BI, Zahedi SA. Improving bioactivity and strength of PEEK composite polymer for bone application. Mater Chem Phys. 2021;266:124485.

[202] Kausar A, Ahmad I, Maaza M, Bocchetta P. Self-healing nanocomposites—advancements and aerospace applications. J Compos Sci. 2023;7(4):148.

[203] Williams G, Trask R, Bond I. A self-healing carbon fibre reinforced polymer for aerospace applications. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2007;38(6):1525-1532.

[204] Wang S, Urban MW. Self-healing polymers. Nat Rev Mater. 2020;5(8):562-583.

[205] Jin WS, Sahu P, Park SM, et al. Design of self-healing EPDM/ionomer thermoplastic vulcanizates by ionic cross-links for automotive application. Polymers. 2022;14(6):1156.

[206] Jiang C, Zhang L, Yang Q, et al. Self-healing polyurethane-elastomer with mechanical tunability for multiple biomedical applications in vivo. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):4395.

[207] Jadoun S. Synthesis, mechanism, and applications of self-healing materials. Biomed Mater Devices. 2023;2:225-240.

[208] Zhou Y, Li L, Han Z, Li Q, He J, Wang Q. Self-healing polymers for electronics and energy devices. Chem Rev. 2023;123(2):558-612.

[209] Wan X, Mu T, Yin G. Intrinsic self-healing chemistry for next-generation flexible energy storage devices. Nano-Micro Lett. 2023;15(1):99.

[210] Shinde VV, Celestine AD, Beckingham LE, Beckingham BS. Stereolithography 3D printing of microcapsule catalyst-based self-healing composites. ACS Appl Polym Mater. 2020;2(11):5048-5057.

[211] Shinde VV, Taylor G, Celestine ADN, Beckingham BS. Fused filament fabrication 3D printing of self-healing high-impact polystyrene thermoplastic polymer composites utilizing eco-friendly solvent-filled microcapsules. ACS Appl Polym Mater. 2022;4(5):3324-3332.

[212] Huang W, Zhang J, Singh V, et al. Digital light 3D printing of a polymer composite featuring robustness, self-healing, recyclability and tailorable mechanical properties. Addit Manuf. 2023;61:103343.

[213] Wang X, He Y, Liu Y, Leng J. Advances in shape memory polymers: remote actuation, multi-stimuli control, 4D printing and prospective applications. Mater Sci Eng R Rep. 2022;151:100702.

[214] Rafiee M, Farahani RD, Therriault D. Multi-material 3D and 4D printing: a survey. Adv Sci. 2020;7(12):1902307.

[215] Yuan C, Lu T, Wang TJ. Mechanics-based design strategies for 4D printing: a review. Forces Mech. 2022;7:100081.

[216] Agarwal T, Hann SY, Chiesa I, et al. 4D printing in biomedical applications: emerging trends and technologies. J Mater Chem B. 2021;9(37):7608-7632.

[217] Khalid MY, Arif ZU, Noroozi R, Zolfagharian A, Bodaghi M. 4D printing of shape memory polymer composites: a review on fabrication techniques, applications, and future perspectives. J Manuf Process. 2022;81:759-797.

[218] Imrie P, Jin J. Polymer 4D printing: advanced shape-change and beyond. J Polym Sci. 2022;60(2):149-174.

[219] Zheng J, Xiao P, Le X, et al. Mimosa inspired bilayer hydrogel actuator functioning in multi-environments. J Mater Chem C. 2018;6(6):1320-1327.

[220] Wang Q, Tian X, Zhang D, Zhou Y, Yan W, Li D. Programmable spatial deformation by controllable off-center freestanding 4D printing of continuous fiber reinforced liquid crystal elastomer composites. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):3869.

[221] Ren L, Wang Z, Ren L, et al. 4D printing of shape-adaptive tactile sensor with tunable sensing characteristics. Compos B Eng. 2023;265:110959.

[222] Wang Y, Li X. 4D printing reversible actuator with strain self-sensing function via structural design. Compos B Eng. 2021;211:108644.

[223] Tahouni Y, Cheng T, Lajewski S, et al. Codesign of biobased cellulose-filled filaments and mesostructures for 4D printing humidity responsive smart structures. 3D Print Addit Manuf. 2023;10(1):1-14.

[224] Jian B, Demoly F, Zhang Y, Qi HJ, André JC, Gomes S. Origami-based design for 4D printing of 3D support-free hollow structures. Engineering. 2022;12:70-82.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 2024 The Authors. InfoMat published by UESTC and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.