Recent advances in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy instruments

Abstract

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an analytical technique based on atomic emission spectroscopy, with broad application prospects. Compared with traditional atomic spectroscopy, LIBS offers distinct advantages for on-site analysis, online monitoring, and other related applications. Currently, the development of LIBS technology is entering a critical transition, shifting from a technology-driven to an application-driven paradigm. Instrument development is a key indicator reflecting the maturity of a technology. In this work, the key components of LIBS instruments are briefly introduced. The current research landscape and latest progress of LIBS instruments are reviewed from four aspects: laboratory-based (off-line detection), field detection (in-line/near-line), portable (primarily handheld), and special application scenarios. Additionally, the instrumental advancements of LIBS in Mars exploration, deep-sea exploration, the nuclear industry, high-temperature molten alloy metallurgy, and agricultural heavy-metal detection are summarized. Finally, based on the current research status, this work assesses the major challenges and opportunities in LIBS instrument development and puts forward suggestions to further advance the field.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy / instruments / laser induced plasma / atomic emission spectroscopy / elemental analysis

1 Introduction

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an atomic emission spectroscopy technique first introduced by Breech and Cross in 1962 [1, 2]. The LIBS technique is based on sample ablation induced by a high-energy laser [3]. Owing to its unique advantages, including rapid analysis, minimal sample preparation, real-time, remote capability, and multi-element analysis, LIBS has shown significant potential for applications in fields such as deep-sea detection [4], Mars exploration [5], metallurgical [6], additive manufacturing [7, 8], food safety [9], environmental protection [10], biosafety [11, 12] and aerosol analysis [13, 14]. The basic principle of LIBS is illustrated in Fig. 1. A laser is focused onto the surface of a solid, liquid, or gaseous sample, ablating a small amount of material and generating a high-temperature plasma. As the plasma cools, excited species relax back to lower energy states and emit characteristic photons [15]. By collecting and analyzing these emission signals, the elemental identities and concentrations within the sample can be quantitatively determined.

Currently, there is a clear and growing commercial demand for LIBS instruments in real-time, online, in-situ, and extreme-environment detection. However, their overall adoption in the commercial sector remains limited. In rapid detection applications, LIBS competes primarily with X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and other rapid elemental analysis techniques [16]. In laboratory settings, additional competition arises from Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS), Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES), and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) [17]. While ICP-MS and ICP-OES deliver highly accurate elemental analysis, they are limited to benchtop, offline measurements and therefore cannot meet on-site analytical requirements. In contrast, LIBS and XRF support in-situ measurements and compact system designs, making them effective complements to conventional laboratory instruments. Despite competition from these established methods, LIBS offers several distinctive advantages: remote and non-contact detection, broad elemental coverage, rapid analysis, and stable performance under extreme conditions (e.g., high temperature/pressure). A comparison of these techniques is provided in Table 1.

While LIBS may exhibit lower stability and quantitative accuracy compared with established techniques, its strengths in rapid, on-line, and multi-element qualitative analysis highlight its broad application potential. Accordingly, LIBS instrumentation development should both capitalize on these advantages and advance underlying technologies to address existing limitations. This requires coordinated progress in laboratory research and field-oriented deployment: laboratory work must confront key technical challenges such as mitigating self-absorption and matrix effects and improving spectral stability, whereas application development should focus on designing specialized instruments tailored to domain-specific needs [18]. To provide a comprehensive view of the global landscape of LIBS instrumentation, this review first outlines the essential system components and then summarizes recent advances across four major domains: laboratory-based (off-line detection), field detection (in-line/near-line), portable (primarily handheld), and specialized scenarios. Finally, future development directions and potential opportunities for LIBS instruments are discussed.

2 Essential components of LIBS system

A LIBS instrument generally comprises a pulsed laser for plasma generation, a spectrometer-detector unit for signal acquisition, a timing controller for synchronization, and an optical module for beam delivery and plasma-light collection. Performance can be further enhanced with auxiliary components such as autofocusing units, purge-gas modules, translation stages, and imaging systems. All modules are coordinated through a dedicated computer or integrated control platform.

2.1 Laser

The laser functions as the core excitation source in LIBS, providing the high power density required to ablate material and generate plasma. Because such power levels are difficult to achieve with continuous-wave sources, LIBS systems predominantly rely on pulsed lasers, which are commonly classified into microsecond, nanosecond, picosecond, and femtosecond regimes. Ultrashort-pulse lasers (picosecond and femtosecond) offer several advantages over microsecond and nanosecond systems. Their extremely short interaction times greatly reduce laser-plasma coupling and mitigate plasma shielding effects [19]. In addition, their higher energy density produces smaller heat-affected and mechanical damage zones, enhances ablation reproducibility, improves spatial resolution, and yields plasmas with lower temperatures [20].

Despite these favorable characteristics, the adoption of ultrashort-pulse lasers in practical LIBS instruments remains limited owing to their higher cost and larger system footprint, confining their use mainly to laboratory platforms. Ongoing advances in laser engineering, however, are expected to facilitate broader integration of ultrafast sources into LIBS instrumentation. Representative laser types and their characteristics are summarized in Table 2.

All laser types listed in Table 2 can serve as excitation sources for LIBS, although gas lasers are now infrequently used owing to low power-conversion efficiency, bulky footprint, and demanding maintenance. The most commonly employed excitation in LIBS is the Nd:YAG solid-state platform, which is realized in several pumped configurations: flashlamp-pumped (FLPSSL), diode-pumped (DPSSL), and fiber-based implementations [21].

Flashlamp-pumped Nd:YAG lasers are robust and cost-effective for high-energy applications, but exhibit relatively low electrical-to-optical conversion efficiency and limited service life. Diode-pumped solid-state lasers replace flashlamps with semiconductor pump diodes, yielding substantially higher conversion efficiency (often >40%), extended operational lifetime (tens of thousands of hours), and reduced thermal load. These attributes make DPSSLs advantageous for compact and portable instrumentation. Fiber lasers, which deliver output via optical fiber, combine excellent beam quality, stable operation, and high electro-optical efficiency, and thus present a promising route for future portable LIBS systems [22, 23].

Despite the performance benefits of ultracompact and diode-pumped sources, their higher cost and, in some cases, increased system complexity have constrained widespread adoption outside laboratory platforms. Representative LIBS laser types and their key parameters are summarized in Table 3; commonly used focusing optics in LIBS are listed in Table 4.

2.2 Spectrum detection system

The spectral acquisition system in LIBS instruments is primarily composed of beam splitting units (e.g., spectrometers) and photodetectors (e.g., photomultiplier tubes or multi-element solid-state detectors). Since the plasma emission signal spans a wide range from vacuum ultraviolet to near-infrared, the detection system must cover a broad wavelength range and maintain high spectral resolution to clearly distinguish spectral lines in most applications [24].

As illustrated in Fig. 2, three spectrometer structures are predominantly utilized in LIBS technology: Czerny-Turner (C-T), Paschen-Runge (P-R), and Echelle. The Czerny-Turner (C-T) design remains the most widely adopted due to its compact structure, mechanical simplicity, and symmetric optical path, which facilitate alignment and help suppress stray-light effects [25, 26]. Its main limitation is that high spectral resolution can be sustained only within a relatively limited spectral span. Achieving broad spectral coverage from the vacuum-ultraviolet to the near-infrared therefore often relies on multi-channel spectral stitching. The Paschen-Runge (P-R) configuration offers intrinsically wider spectral coverage while maintaining high resolution, and it further allows independent optimization of detector sensitivity and gating parameters for different wavelength regions. These advantages require a more complex architecture, typically involving multiple detectors or detector arrays operating in parallel [27]. Echelle spectrometers are frequently employed for high-performance LIBS applications because their cross-dispersion design provides high diffraction efficiency, broadband blaze characteristics, high resolution, and a large dynamic range [28]. However, the optical complexity of the cross-dispersion scheme makes aberration correction more difficult and increases the likelihood of spectral artifacts such as ghost or companion lines, which places greater demands on calibration and data processing [29]. The optical elements commonly used for signal collection in LIBS are summarized in Table 5.

Photodetectors convert optical signals into electrical outputs and play a crucial role in recording LIBS spectra. Commonly used devices include photomultiplier tubes (PMT) [30, 31], complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) sensors, charge-coupled devices (CCD), and intensified CCD (ICCD). PMTs function as single-point detectors with exceptionally high sensitivity, fast temporal response, and low cost, making them well suited for Paschen-Runge spectrometers. In LIBS, where multiple emission lines are typically measured, PMTs can record only one wavelength at a time, necessitating sequential scanning. Combined with their reliance on high-voltage operation and dedicated acquisition circuitry, this limits their suitability for field-deployable applications. [32]. CMOS sensors provide much higher readout speeds and lower power consumption due to their integrated signal-processing architecture, although their imaging quality and sensitivity generally remain inferior to CCD. CCD detectors, composed of two-dimensional photosensitive arrays, enable simultaneous full-spectrum acquisition, but their photoelectric conversion efficiency is strongly temperature dependent, necessitating frequent calibration using standard samples. In addition, CCD typically exhibits higher detection limits compared with PMT. ICCD enhance CCD arrays with microchannel-plate amplification and nanosecond-scale gating, yielding higher signal-to-noise ratios and lower readout noise. Their ability to precisely control acquisition delay and exposure time enables time-resolved investigation of transient plasma evolution [33]. The performance characteristics of different spectrometer–detector configurations used in LIBS are summarized in Table 6.

2.3 Optical system and other components

The optical system of a LIBS instrument generally encompasses two primary functional pathways: plasma excitation and spectral acquisition. Plasma excitation commonly employs single-pulse or double-pulse schemes. Within the laser-focusing subsystem, optical setups may incorporate single lenses, double-lens arrangements [34], reflective mirrors, or beam-shaping optics [35]. Notably, the double-lens design alleviates the elevated breakdown threshold stemming from spherical aberration, yielding a more elongated plasma plume with subdued emission intensity [36]. Furthermore, beam shaping via diffractive optical elements (DOEs) transforms a Gaussian laser profile into a flattop beam, thereby ensuring consistent per-pulse ablation yields and generating smoother, more uniform craters [37, 38].

Spectral acquisition is facilitated through diverse optical configurations, as depicted in Fig. 3 [39, 40]. Coaxial collection [Fig. 3(a)] integrates plasma emission into an optical fiber using an off-axis parabolic mirror and focusing lens, thereby ensuring reliable signal capture. Complementary approaches include single-lens [Fig. 3(b)] and double-lens [Fig. 3(c)] systems, the latter enhancing collection efficiency. Direct fiber coupling [Fig. 3(d)] streamlines the apparatus but demands precise lens-fiber alignment. Multi-probe strategies are additionally harnessed to augment spectral gathering [41]. For remote and standoff sensing, telescopic optics are deployed to optimize the collection solid angle. Favored designs encompass Cassegrain [42], Newtonian [43], and reflective telescopes [44], all of which facilitate robust signal retrieval over extended distances.

Furthermore, precise control of the acquisition delay during spectral collection is essential for capturing stable, high-intensity signals in LIBS systems. The DG series digital delay generators from Stanford Research Systems remain the prevailing choice for this purpose, with the DG535 model featuring four independent channels and a 5 ps resolution. However, its relatively large size limits integration into portable instruments. To address this limitation, miniaturized digital delay generators have been developed for LIBS applications. For instance, Ding et al. [45] designed a compact three-channel delay generator with 100 ps precision, while Li et al. [46] reported a micro digital generator achieving 55 ps accuracy, with average delay error and peak-to-peak jitter comparable to the DG535.

Moreover, the physical properties of elements, including melting and boiling points, reflectivity, and ionization energies, influence their dissociation behavior in laser-induced plasma and consequently affect their limits of detection (LOD) in LIBS. Main-group elements exhibit relatively simple energy-level structures. Group I A elements, except hydrogen, are alkali metals with LODs of approximately 0.1−10 ppm, while Group II A elements (alkaline earth metals) show LODs of 0.1−1 ppm. Metallic elements within Groups III A-VI A, such as Al, Ga, In, Sn, Tl, and Pb, display LODs ranging from 5 to 150 ppm, whereas semiconductor elements including B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, and Te have wider LOD ranges of 10−20,000 ppm. Nonmetallic elements (C, N, O, P, S, Se) generally require higher excitation energy, resulting in LODs of 500−20,000 ppm. Group VII A elements (halogens) are typically detected via molecular radicals due to challenges in direct excitation. Group 0 elements (noble gases) facilitate energy transfer to the sample by resisting laser-induced breakdown in the surrounding atmosphere. Transition metals, classified as sub-group elements, possess complex energy-level structures and exhibit LODs of roughly 1−150 ppm. Figure 4 illustrates these LOD trends of the main elements. According to the NIST atomic energy-level database, the strongest emission lines of metallic elements are generally distributed between 200 and 850 nm, whereas those of nonmetallic elements such as C, P, and S are primarily located in the deep ultraviolet region (170−200 nm).

2.4 Software system of LIBS instruments

The software system of a LIBS instrument typically comprises four core modules: device control, data acquisition and preprocessing, analytical algorithms, and the user interface. The device control module manages hardware components, including the laser, spectrometer, and displacement stage, via communication ports, and is commonly developed using LabVIEW or the Qt framework to adjust key parameters such as laser energy, pulse frequency, and spectrometer delay. The data acquisition and preprocessing module applies algorithms for baseline correction, noise reduction, and signal enhancement. The analytical algorithm module integrates chemometric and machine learning approaches, such as partial least squares regression and artificial neural networks, to support automatic spectral line identification and quantitative analysis. Building on these capabilities, modern LIBS software increasingly incorporates intelligent functionalities, including AI-assisted automatic focusing, sample positioning, adaptive parameter optimization, real-time quality control, and fault diagnosis. In addition, the system enables the generation of high-resolution 2D and 3D elemental distribution maps, providing detailed spatial information for comprehensive material characterization.

2.5 Main manufacturers of LIBS instruments

Prior to detailing current LIBS instruments, a summary of major global manufacturers is presented. Table 7 provides key information for most of these contemporary LIBS instrument producers [48−52]. Beyond these, numerous early manufacturers also contributed innovative designs and foundational technologies. Table 8 lists several of these pioneering firms and their instruments, which served as important references for subsequent development. Although these early commercial LIBS instruments were developed decades ago, their adoption was limited by the technical capabilities and market conditions of the time. Nevertheless, the experiences gained from these early efforts have offered valuable insights that informed and guided the advancement of modern LIBS instrumentation.

According to a report by Grand View Research (Fig. 5), the global market for LIBS analyzers is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of approximately 6.2% from 2019 to 2033, reaching an estimated value of \mathrm{\$}285 million by 2023.

According to a report by Archive Market Research (Fig. 6), North America currently represents the largest market for LIBS analyzers, followed by Europe, while the Asia-Pacific region is experiencing rapid growth. In China, accelerating industrialization and increased government investment in research and development have fostered the emergence of numerous innovative domestic LIBS manufacturers. Current technological trends in LIBS include continued miniaturization of equipment, which enhances portability and enables real-time, in-field analysis across diverse environments. Simultaneously, the integration of advanced data processing algorithms, particularly machine learning and artificial intelligence, is improving analytical accuracy and speed, thereby broadening accessibility to non-specialist users. Further advances in laser sources and detection technologies are enhancing sensitivity and expanding the application range of LIBS, supporting sustained market growth and widening its global adoption.

3 Laboratory-level instruments (off-line detection)

The principle of LIBS is straightforward, allowing prototypes to be assembled from commercially available components. Open-platform LIBS systems offer the advantage of adjustable hardware configurations, facilitating detailed investigation of system parameters [55]. However, such platforms exhibit limited stability, as small variations in acquisition devices can cause significant fluctuations in results [56]. They also impose stringent environmental requirements, including controlled temperature, humidity, and cleanliness [57], and involve higher operational risks due to the use of high-energy pulsed lasers. Consequently, the development of laboratory-level LIBS instruments is essential, not only to enhance system stability and experimental convenience but also to provide a foundation for field-deployable devices [58].

Laboratory-scale instruments are generally categorized into modular and highly integrated systems. Modular analyzers, exemplified by AtomTrace LIBS Sci-Trace, provide flexible replacement of optical and mechanical components, support customized optical configurations tailored to specific samples, and are relatively cost-effective. These features make modular platforms particularly suitable for methodological development, fundamental plasma studies, and the analysis of nonstandard materials.

In contrast, highly integrated instruments, such as the Applied Spectra J200, consolidate critical components within a sealed unit, minimizing the influence of temperature, humidity, and optical misalignment. This design enhances long-term measurement stability, reduces calibration frequency, and lowers operational demands. As a result, these instruments support reliable high-throughput routine elemental analysis and long-term industrial monitoring, with reduced user intervention and technical expertise required.

In this section, laboratory-level LIBS instruments and their applications are summarized according to their integration level, as presented in Table 9. Additionally, microscopic LIBS systems are discussed to highlight developments in compact and specialized detection platforms.

3.1 Modular instruments

Modular laboratory-level LIBS instruments offer flexible replacement and customization of core components, including lasers, spectrometers, and related devices, enabling tailored configurations for diverse measurement schemes. A representative example is the LIBS Sci-Trace system, introduced by Czech company AtomTrace a.s. in 2014 [59]. The system standardizes LIBS measurements while retaining flexibility for each module. As shown in Fig. 7(a), it comprises an instrument cabinet and an interactive LIBS chamber mounted on an optical platform [60]. The cabinet houses essential hardware, including lasers, spectrometers, calibration sources, collimated lasers, digital delay generators, and pressure control units. The interactive chamber, shown in Fig. 7(b), can be configured as a cage, vacuum chamber, or mechanical assembly, providing the physical environment for experiments. The overall system supports dual-pulse LIBS, LIBS-LIF, multi-probe acquisition, plasma imaging, and integration with other spectroscopic techniques [61]. Its airtight design allows precise pressure control from 1 to 1300 mbar, enabling stable and reproducible measurements under varied atmospheric conditions.

In 2019, Modlitbová et al. [62] employed the Sci-Trace system to investigate biomarkers, developing a sandwich immunoassay for human serum albumin using streptavidin-coated AgNP labels. The assay achieved a detection limit of 10 ng·mL⁻¹, comparable to conventional fluorometric readouts.

Laboratory-level instruments LIBSLAB [Fig. 8(a)] and CORALIS [Fig. 8(b)] were introduced by Lasertechnik Berlin GmbH (LTB) in 2017 and 2021, respectively. LIBSLAB features a modular design, allowing optional selection of the sample chamber, spectrometer, laser, and analysis software [63, 64], with spectrometers available in the ARYELLE or DEMON series (Echelle configuration). CORALIS integrates LIBS and Raman spectroscopy [65, 66], enabling simultaneous multi-element analysis and molecular or crystal structure characterization within a single platform.

In recent studies, LIBSLAB has been applied for environmental and industrial sample analysis. In 2024, Elhassan et al. [67] utilized p-XRF and LIBSLAB to assess heavy metal (Hg, Pb, Cu) removal from wastewater by MoO₃ and MoO₃-doped Y₂O₃. Similarly, in 2022, Elsayed et al. [68] employed the LIBSLAB system to determine phosphorus concentrations in phosphor gypsum (PG) waste samples, demonstrating the capability of LIBS-based laboratory instruments for rapid, accurate elemental analysis in diverse matrices.

ChemReveal™ (Fig. 9) is a desktop LIBS instrument developed by TSI around 2013 [69], representing an early stage in the evolution of laboratory LIBS systems. Although the instrument has been discontinued, it remains notable for its design and functionality. The system comprises a sample chamber, an Nd:YAG laser (1064 nm, 200 mJ, or 266 nm, 50 mJ), and a power supply module. Users could select either a 4 or 7-channel broadband spectrometer or an Echelle spectrometer equipped with an ICCD detector. Two imaging lenses are provided: a wide-angle lens for full-sample imaging and a microscopic lens for high-resolution imaging of specific regions [70]. The laser energy is regulated by a PID control system, ensuring consistent energy delivery to the sample surface. In 2024, Shi et al. [71] utilized data acquired from ChemReveal™ to discriminate between greenish-white and white nephrite jade using LDA, PLS-DA, SVM, and RF algorithms.

ACCULIBS 2500 (Fig. 10) is an integrated laboratory LIBS system developed by Ocean Insight [72, 73]. The instrument incorporates an Ocean Dynamoelectric Sampling Stage (ODSS) for automated sample positioning and controlled gas environment. The standard configuration includes an MX2500+ multi-channel spectrometer with a spectral resolution of 0.1 nm, a trigger delay of ±450 µs, and an integration time of 1 ms [74, 75]. An optional sample cabinet enables dual-pulse measurements.

In 2022, Musyoka et al. [11] employed the ACCULIBS 2500 to quantify Zn, Cu, and Fe in simulated blood samples. Data analysis using artificial neural networks (ANN) and partial least squares regression (PLS) achieved maximum quantitative accuracies of 73% for Zn, 68% for Cu, and 99% for Fe.

3.2 High integration instruments

Highly integrated laboratory-level LIBS instruments typically encapsulate key components, including lasers and spectrometers, within a single, secure housing, thereby limiting user access for hardware replacement.

The third-generation J200 LIBS system, launched by Applied Spectra in 2020, represents the company’s flagship laboratory instrument (Fig. 11) [76]. It is equipped with a standard Nd:YAG laser operating at 266 nm and achieves detection limits in the ppm range for most elements, making it highly suitable for laboratory applications. The instrument features a 10 × 10 inch acquisition chamber, where an autofocus system enables measurement and elemental imaging of samples with varied sizes and surface topographies [77]. A high-precision digital mass flow controller (MFC) maintains controlled argon or helium atmospheres and facilitates particle flushing within the chamber, enabling precise quantification of H, O, and N while enhancing sensitivity for other analytes [78].

In 2022, Muhammad et al. [79] employed the J200 to analyze calcium and magnesium in human tooth tissue. The results indicated that the Ca-Mg ratio remained essentially unchanged for irradiated dentin up to 5.8 J/cm², demonstrating the suitability of the Nd:YAG laser for clinical applications, particularly in dentin tissue.

For isotope analysis, the J200 can be upgraded to the J200 Tandem LA-LIBS instrument coupled with ICP-MS [80]. In this configuration, solid sample ablation particles generated by LIBS are directly transferred to the ICP-MS system for further analysis. This integration overcomes the limitations of ICP-MS in detecting certain light elements and reduces the need for complex sample pretreatment [81]. In 2022, Berlo et al. [82] applied the J200 Tandem LA-LIBS instrument to investigate the elemental composition of volcanic lake fluids. The study demonstrated that the J200 LA-LIBS provides rapid, direct elemental analysis, yielding results consistent with ICP-MS and offering complementary insights for elemental characterization.

Applied Photonics Ltd. (APL) has specialized in modular and customized LIBS systems since its establishment in 1998, with a particular focus on applications in the nuclear industry [83, 84]. The company’s product portfolio can be grouped into three categories: modular laboratory analyzers (e.g., LIBS-6/LIBS-8), integrated platforms for laboratory and field use (the LIBSCAN series), and specialized instruments for scenario-specific tasks such as nuclear inspection, borehole mineral detection, and long-range remote sensing [85].

This section highlights the LIBSCAN series, which comprises four main models (Fig. 12). Models (a)−(c) are primarily configured for laboratory applications, with selectable options to match different measurement requirements. The LIBSCAN 25+ integrates the major components into a compact, portable detection head. This structural design allows it to maintain laboratory-grade performance while supporting field deployment, thereby extending the applicability of LIBS to both controlled and on-site environments [86, 87].

In 2019, Palásti et al. [88] employed the LIBSCAN 25+ system to analyze five coal-derived aerosol samples, achieving a detection limit of approximately 600 pg·mm⁻³ and an overall classification accuracy of 87.2%. In 2022, Andrews et al. [89] utilized LIBSCAN 150 to investigate the transition probabilities of radioactive neptunium, and the Np/Sr ratio obtained from CF-LIBS analysis showed an average prediction error of 3.86%, demonstrating the instrument’s suitability for radiochemical applications.

The FiberLIBS LAB system, developed by SECOPTA for laboratory-scale LIBS measurements, is illustrated in Fig. 13. The earlier-generation configuration is shown in Fig. 13(b), while Fig. 13(c) presents the upgraded versions introduced in recent years. The system integrates a measurement chamber equipped with motorized translation stages, a modular measurement head, and a dedicated control unit. With the assistance of a camera-based positioning module, the instrument supports single-spot analysis, depth profiling, and three-dimensional elemental mapping [90−92]. FiberLIBS LAB is applicable to a wide range of materials, including metals, slag, concrete, and glass. The system employs a 1064 nm microchip laser with repetition rates up to 100 Hz, a pulse energy of 3 mJ, and a peak power exceeding 1.5 MW.

In 2019, Dietz et al. [93] employed FiberLIBS LAB to measure the atomic and molecular emission spectra of cement samples with varying chloride contents, achieving detection limits of 0.028 wt% in helium and 0.094 wt% in air. Beyond cement analysis, the system has also been applied to a range of heterogeneous materials, including geological, soil, and ore samples. More recently, in 2024, Cacho et al. [94] used FiberLIBS LAB for the online sorting of brominated plastics in waste electrical and electronic equipment.

ALIBEN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY has developed two benchtop analytical systems: the LIBS-Tracer [Fig. 14(a)] and the LIBS-Raman hybrid instrument LIBRAS [Fig. 14(b)]. The LIBS-Tracer employs a 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser (100 mJ, 1 Hz, 13 ns) and a three-channel spectrometer covering 185–850 nm. Designed for general-purpose laboratory analysis, it has been applied in ore characterization, environmental monitoring, geological exploration, and metallurgical studies [95].

The LIBRAS system integrates LIBS and Raman spectroscopy to enable simultaneous elemental and molecular-level identification at the same sampling position [96]. It uses a nanosecond Q-switched Nd:YAG laser (Lotis Tii Ltd, Russian, pulse duration of 6 ns) and an Aryelle Butterfly 400 echelle spectrograph (Lasertechnik Berlin GmbH, Germany). The combined system provides spectral coverage of 210–700 nm for LIBS and 523–652 nm for Raman, allowing comprehensive multi-modal characterization within a single measurement.

In 2021, Yao et al. [97] used LIBS-Tracer to detect Cu, Pb, and Cr in aqueous solutions. With gold-nanoparticle surface enhancement, the signal intensities of these elements increased by factors of 9, 23 and 26, respectively. In the same year, Wu et al. [98] employed LIBS-Tracer with a superhydrophobic bionic interface patterned with hydrophilic arrays to concentrate low-concentration targets within the interrogation area; using this preconcentration strategy, the detection limits for nine metal elements in mixed solutions were improved to the range of 8.3 ppt to 13.49 ppb.

In 2018, Lin et al. [99] provided a detailed description of LIBRAS and measured the LIBS and Raman spectra of calcite and feldspar-quartz sandstone. The acquired spectrum showed good agreement with previously reported data, confirming the reliability of the system.

Wuhan NRD Laser Engineering Co., Ltd. developed three laboratory LIBS systems: JGTZ-001, JGTZ-002 and JGTZ-003 (Fig. 15). JGTZ-001 and JGTZ-003 are dual-pulse, resonance-excitation platforms incorporating an Nd:YAG pulsed laser and an OPO (optical parametric oscillator) tunable laser. JGTZ-001 delivers 4 mJ pulse energy and offers high spatial resolution (spectral resolution 0.043–0.092 nm; ablation crater diameter 3−10 μm). JGTZ-003 provides 50 mJ pulse energy with a spectral resolution of ~0.019 nm and crater diameters of 50−500 μm. JGTZ-002 is a single-pulse detection system. All three instruments are equipped with wide-angle, high-magnification microscopic imaging, autofocus, and sample-scanning capabilities for elemental distribution mapping [100−103].

Li et al. [104] employed the JGTZ-003 system to determine Co in low-alloy steel using a 304.40 nm excitation wavelength. They compared the analytical performance of LIBS-LIF based on ground-state atom excitation (LIBS-LIFG) with that of excited-state excitation (LIBS-LIFE). The results indicate that LIBS-LIFG yields substantially higher fluorescence intensity throughout the entire plasma lifetime, demonstrating its superior sensitivity for trace Co analysis.

3.3 Micro-LIBS instruments

Micro-LIBS enables elemental mapping with spatial resolution on the micrometer scale, making it well suited for high-resolution surface and cross-sectional analyses. Typical applications include investigation of lithium-battery anodes, elemental identification in electroplated cross sections, compositional analysis of salt crystals, assessment of coating delamination on probe tips, detection of foreign objects in automotive engine components, and analysis of drug residues generated during diamond abrasive grinding. Mechanistically, Micro-LIBS performs point-by-point spectral acquisition during sample scanning, wherein each measured position generates a spectrum that is converted into a pixel in an elemental map, thereby producing multichannel elemental images that reveal the spatial distribution of constituents across the sample surface. Nonetheless, Micro-LIBS imaging faces several technical challenges, notably achieving sensitive detection of trace species, maintaining true micrometer-scale spatial resolution, and implementing high-precision autofocus for uneven or topographically complex samples. Commercial Micro-LIBS instruments are summarized in Table 10.

The FireFly microscopic LIBS analyzer (Fig. 16), developed by Lightigo (Czech Republic), integrates a 355 nm DPSS laser with an achromatic air-coupled lens of 30 mm focal length for simultaneous beam focusing and signal collection [105]. A motorized stage equipped with autofocus facilitates precise, automated measurements over microscale areas. The instrument achieves detection limits of 1−100 ppm and a spatial resolution of 10−150 μm. Additionally, it further supports two-dimensional elemental mapping and depth profiling, offering a scan area of up to 100 mm × 100 mm and a maximum acquisition rate of 100 Hz.

The DM6 M LIBS microscope (Fig. 17), produced by Leica (Germany), integrates visual imaging and chemical analysis within a single platform [108]. Its fully motorized optical assembly, fitted with NUV (near-ultraviolet) objective lenses, enables precise focusing and coaxial signal collection. Motorized XYZ stages provide autofocus and automatic centering, ensuring that the region of interest remains sharply focused and aligned during objective changes.

the EA-300 microscopic LIBS analyzer (Fig. 18) from Keyence (Japan) integrates a reflective objective with a VHX digital microscope to enable combined optical imaging and LIBS measurement [109]. It uses a 355 nm Nd:YAG laser and delivers a focal spot of about 10 μm.

The CALIBSO microscopic LIBS analyzer (Fig. 19), developed by LTB (Germany), integrates an air-cooled DPSS laser with an Echelle spectrometer, providing a spectral resolution of up to 30 pm [111].

The MEEPLIBS system (Fig. 20), developed by IVEA (France), employs a deep-UV 266 nm laser, providing a spatial resolution of 8 µm. Owing to its short-wavelength excitation, the system supports broad elemental coverage, including efficient detection of light elements such as H, Li, and B [47].

The ECORE FLEX system (Fig. 21), developed by Elemission (Canada), is designed for high-speed, automated quantitative scanning of mineral and elemental cores using a 1 kHz laser source [112]. It provides a spatial resolution of 50 µm and can accommodate surface roughness up to 5 mm. With a throughput of up to 1000 spectra per second, the system supports large-area, high-efficiency analysis suited to industrial on-site applications.

Micro-LIBS has driven significant advancements in fields such as archaeology, new energy materials, and biomedical analysis. In early work, Duan’s group at Sichuan University established an autofocusing LIBS platform capable of simultaneously probing elemental composition and molecular structure in minerals such as gypsum and calcite [113]. Zheng’s group at the Ocean University of China further demonstrated spatially resolved mapping of Ca, K, Li, Mg, and Sr in shell specimens through LIBS-based spectral imaging [114]. Complementing spatial mapping, Zhao’s team at the Beijing Institute of Technology developed a laser-confocal LIBS micro-imaging system that enabled three-dimensional reconstruction of microelement distributions with a lateral resolution of 10 μm [115].

Advances in spatial resolution and signal fidelity have further expanded the capabilities of micro-LIBS. Cui’s group at Northwestern Polytechnical University introduced Raman-based correction strategies for mitigating plasma-induced spectral fluctuations during oxide deposition analysis [116]. Wang’s group at Xi’an Jiaotong University achieved 1 μm spatial resolution for Cu-Al crimping interfaces using picosecond LIBS (0.4 μJ, 355 nm, 9 ps) [117]. In the field of cultural heritage, Sun’s team at Northwest Normal University and Yin’s group at the Dunhuang Research Institute employed micro-LIBS to determine pigment types and layer thicknesses in Dunhuang murals [118].

Micro-LIBS has also enabled high-resolution characterization of new-energy materials. A Japanese research team led by Susumu mapped the three-dimensional lithium distribution in graphite anodes under a 1000 Pa argon atmosphere, achieving a spatial resolution of 10 μm [119]. Owing to the system’s scalability, micro-LIBS can be integrated with confocal Raman spectroscopy to provide co-registered elemental and molecular information, enabling micron-scale inversion of both composition and structural heterogeneity within complex materials [120].

4 Field detection instruments (in-line/near-line)

In addition to customized or application-specific designs, online LIBS systems can be broadly grouped into three categories: alloy-waste sorting instruments, molten-metal monitoring systems, and other types of field-deployable instruments. Among these, alloy-waste sorting applications prioritize high throughput over analytical precision, making LIBS particularly suitable due to its capability for rapid, in-situ elemental identification. Molten-metal monitoring constitutes another important application domain, but its operational challenges and dedicated instrument configurations are addressed separately in the section on special application scenarios [121]. The present section therefore focuses on the remaining two categories: metal waste online sorting instruments and other field-deployable detection systems, with representative instruments summarized in Table 11.

4.1 Metal waste online sorting instruments

The metal recycling industry plays a critical role in supporting sustainable economic development. Globally, diminishing primary resources and increasing material demand have driven up the cost of industrial raw materials, highlighting the growing importance of recovering high-quality secondary resources from diverse waste streams. Current advanced waste-sorting technologies primarily rely on laser, infrared, and X-ray techniques, among which laser-based systems offer a broader application range and higher sorting accuracy.

For LIBS-based metal scrap sorting instruments, performance is generally evaluated in terms of throughput and classification accuracy. Throughput is mainly constrained by the laser repetition rate, while classification accuracy is affected by matrix-dependent variations in characteristic emission lines of different metals, such as steel versus stainless steel or aluminum versus aluminum alloys. In addition, the irregular surfaces of mixed scrap transported on conveyor belts further compromise the robustness of spectral identification and thereby limit sorting precision.

PAnalyzer and LIBSORTER 300 (Fig. 22) are on-site LIBS platforms developed by LTB Lasertechnik Berlin GmbH for rapid remote inspection of large-area panels (e.g. solar panels, glass, ceramics) and for online sorting of alloy scrap on conveyor systems [123−125]. PAnalyzer delivers a limit of detection below 10 ppm and supports measurement rates up to 100 Hz. LIBSORTER 300 is tailored for identification and sorting of aluminium alloys and is engineered for high-throughput operation: it employs a 100 Hz laser and an automatic focusing mechanism with a ±15 mm depth of focus, permitting reliable sorting at up to 40 samples·s⁻¹ within that focal range [126]. To mitigate matrix interference, LIBSORTER 300 uses an Echelle spectrometer with broad spectral coverage and implements multivariate quantitative models to enhance classification and quantitative accuracy.

In 2015, Merk et al. [127] evaluated the performance of the LIBSORTER 300 system for the classification of ten types of recycled alloys. Multivariate chemometric methods, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for feature extraction and Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) for supervised classification, were applied and systematically compared. Using the spectral dataset acquired by the instrument, the authors achieved simultaneous discrimination of all ten alloy classes with classification accuracies exceeding 90% for most categories. The study also identified several sources of error intrinsic to non-laboratory, conveyor-based measurements, highlighting the challenges associated with industrial LIBS deployments.

SpeedSorter^TM is a LIBS-based system introduced by Ocean Insight in 2022 for online sorting of non-ferrous metal scrap [128]. The instrument is capable of distinguishing forging and casting alloys, as well as various aluminum-based and magnesium-based alloys, which are often difficult to differentiate using conventional XRF or XRT techniques. It operates at a fixed working distance of 248 ± 7 mm and supports a processing throughput of up to 5 tons of mixed scrap per hour. As illustrated in Fig. 23(b), the system performs real-time spectral acquisition and classification, and the resulting decisions are used to actuate the corresponding pneumatic sorting mechanism.

MopaLIBS [Fig. 24(a)] is an industrial, field-deployable multi-element composition analyzer developed by SECOPTA. It enables rapid, online measurements of high-throughput material streams and supports remote operation under harsh industrial conditions [129, 130]. The system operates at a standoff distance of approximately 1 m and incorporates a dynamic tracking and autofocusing module with a focal length of 100 mm and a tracking speed of 7.0 mm/ms. It is suitable for identifying steels, aluminum alloys, recycled materials, non-ferrous metal fragments, and refractory materials. MopaLIBS employs a microcrystalline 1064 nm laser in a master-oscillator power-amplifier (MOPA) configuration [131]. The laser provides a peak pulse power exceeding 1 MW and a repetition rate of up to 20 kHz. The system can process spectral data at an analysis frequency of up to 350 results per second.

In 2021, Seidel et al. [132] compared EDXRF, WDXRF, LIBS (MopaLIBS), and spark-OES for the quantification of copper, aluminum, and steel alloys. For most pure and homogeneous alloy samples, all techniques produced comparable results, demonstrating their suitability for metal and impurity analysis. However, for certain element-matrix combinations, such as Si in steels and Cu in aluminum alloys, LIBS delivered notably higher accuracy.

ChemLine is an online LIBS-based system developed by TSI in 2015 for the sorting of aluminum scrap on conveyor belts. Figure 25(a) shows the main module of the instrument, while Fig. 25(b) depicts its display at the ISRI 2018 exhibition [133, 134]. The system can simultaneously quantify copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and zinc in waste streams and achieve a processing throughput of up to 5 tons per hour. ChemLine has undergone extensive testing by the metal-sorting manufacturer Austin AI over three and a half years and has since become the company’s important supplier of LIBS sensors.

TOMRA, a Norwegian resource-recovery company, launched the X-TRACT sorting system in 2015 using XRF technology [135]. The subsequent incorporation of LIBS enhanced its classification accuracy, allowing the system to sort metal waste into distinct grades more effectively.

4.2 Other types of field detection instruments

In addition to LIBS systems for metal waste sorting, on-site LIBS instruments have been developed for applications in mineral imaging, archaeological analysis, and environmental monitoring. These instruments are often customized to meet specific operational requirements.

LIBS X-Trace, launched by the Czech company AtomTrace a.s., is a remote detection system with an operational range of 6−20 m [136, 137]. The system, shown in Fig. 26, integrates a computer, laser power supply, cooling unit, and spectrometer within a single enclosure. A Galileo beam expander with a periscope is used to expand and remotely focus the laser, while plasma emission is collected via a Newton telescope and directed to the spectrometer. The system also features automated focusing, sample imaging, and illumination modules, enabling precise remote elemental analysis.

In 2016, Pořízka et al. [138] employed the X-Trace system equipped with both echelle and Czerny-Turner spectrometers to analyze 28 types of sedimentary ores. The measurements achieved a maximum accuracy of 0.99, with copper detection limits of 28 ppm using the echelle spectrometer and 4 ppm using the Czerny-Turner spectrometer.

LIBS M-Trace (Fig. 27) is a compact, field-deployable LIBS detection system developed by AtomTrace a.s., Czech Republic [139]. The system is equipped with a DPSS Nd:YAG laser operating at 1064 nm or 532 nm, with a maximum pulse energy of 100 mJ and a repetition rate of 20 Hz, and a multichannel Czerny-Turner spectrometer. To date, its applications in field analysis have been scarcely reported.

ELEMISSION (Canada) specializes in the development of LIBS hyperspectral instruments [140]. Its product portfolio includes systems characterized by high laser repetition rates, typically around 1 kHz, and spectral acquisition frequencies at the kilohertz level, making them suitable for laboratory analysis or line-side detection. The main instruments, ECORE (LIBS core scanner) and CORIOSITY (compact LIBS imager), have undergone multiple iterations to enhance performance.

CORIOSITY [Fig. 28(a)] is equipped with a 1064 nm laser that delivers 500 μJ per pulse at a repetition rate of 1 kHz [141]. The system includes a 5 mm Rayleigh zone to accommodate the surface roughness of rock samples. An autofocus module ensures that the sample remains within 30 μm of the focal plane. The spectral detection range spans 220−990 nm, allowing detection of sulfide at 921 nm.

The instrument parameters of ECORE [Fig. 28(c)] are generally consistent with those of CORIOSITY [142]. CORIOSITY is primarily designed for detailed analysis of individual samples, allowing determination of specific element types and concentrations. In contrast, ECORE is optimized for large-area surface scanning of multiple sample types (up to 64 boats of 19 cm length), enabling the generation of mineralogical maps, characterization of mineral textures, and estimation of particle sizes. Based on CORIOSITY, a jet-mode module was added to measure slurry materials, forming the Slurry system [Fig. 28(b)] [143]. The latest ECORE FLEX [Fig. 28(d)] combines the fine analytical capability of CORIOSITY with the large-area scanning function of ECORE, providing both accurate mineralogical maps and elemental content information simultaneously [112]. Other related instruments include COBRA, which is primarily used for rapid, large-area scanning and imaging of bulk minerals [144], and Z118, which is designed for the analysis of irregular metal samples.

Among these instruments, most application reports focus on CORIOSITY and ECORE. In 2020, Rifai et al. [145] employed CORIOSITY GEM-III for ultrafast elemental mapping of platinum group elements and identification of platinum-palladium ore minerals. A 40 mm × 30 mm area of the drill core surface was scanned at a rate of 1000 Hz with a spatial resolution of 50 μm, completing the analysis in approximately 8 minutes. In 2022, Rifai et al. [146] used ECORE to quantify lithium in crushed ore samples. Thirty representative samples were embedded in resin and polished into flat discs for scanning. ECORE measurements showed a strong correlation with ICP–AES results, confirming its reliability for quantitative lithium analysis.

5 Portable instruments (handheld primarily)

Advances in technology and growing market demand have driven the integration and miniaturization of scientific instruments. Traditional desktop LIBS systems are constrained by high cost, operational complexity, and strict environmental requirements, limiting their broader adoption. Portable LIBS instruments offer a promising approach for field applications in environmental monitoring, food safety, biomedicine, and other areas, allowing flexible operation under diverse field conditions.

The development of miniaturized instruments faces significant challenges. Miniaturization must balance functionality and applicability, as reducing components often limits the versatility and competitiveness of the device. It also requires maintaining analytical performance while reducing size and weight, rather than simply simplifying or scaling down the system. These challenges necessitate technological innovation and investment, and progress in this area serves as an indicator of overall technological advancement.

Due to the lack of standardized classification criteria, handheld LIBS instruments are herein categorized based on their ability to detect carbon, as summarized in Table 12. This classification does not imply relative performance.

5.1 Carbon-measurable handheld instruments

Carbon is a critical element in steel, directly determining key mechanical properties such as hardness, strength, and toughness, and serving as a core parameter for steel classification and quality control. Consequently, rapid and accurate carbon measurement is essential in industries such as steel metallurgy, mechanical manufacturing, and automotive production. By contrast, non-ferrous materials, including aluminum and copper alloys, have less stringent requirements for carbon detection. This distinction provides a practical basis for classifying handheld instruments according to their carbon measurement capabilities.

Measuring carbon in metals presents unique challenges, as ambient air can significantly interfere with the detection signal. To overcome this, handheld instruments designed for carbon analysis typically incorporate an inert-gas protection module to isolate the measurement area and ensure reliable readings. These devices must also balance miniaturization with performance, maintaining analytical accuracy while being portable and easy to operate in field environments.

In this section, we introduce several handheld LIBS instruments with robust carbon detection capabilities, as illustrated in Fig. 29, highlighting their design features, measurement performance, and applicability in practical industrial scenarios.

SciAps offers a comprehensive range of Z-series handheld LIBS (hLIBS) instruments, encompassing general-purpose and carbon-specific analyzers [158]. The general-purpose models, including Z-903 and Z-300, provide full elemental analysis across a wide spectral range, while Z-902 C+, Z-901, and Z-200 C+ are specialized for carbon measurement in steels and alloys.

The Z-903 is capable of detecting elements such as Li, Be, B, C, F, and Na, which are beyond the reach of typical handheld X-ray analyzers [159]. It integrates three CCD spectrometers, covering the entire periodic table. This wide spectral coverage allows, for example, sensitive measurement of the Li line near 675 nm, achieving a detection limit of 2–5 ppm while mitigating iron interference on the potassium line. Z-903 has been applied extensively for real-time analysis of lithium ore, lithium iron phosphate, rock, and brine samples.

The Z-300 shares similar instrumental specifications with Z-903 but has broader applicability. In addition to lithium, beryllium, boron, and carbon analysis in brine and hard rock, it can measure fluorine and sodium in soils. Its wide spectral range enables applications in forensics, authentication, archaeology, and oil/gas exploration. Moreover, Z-300 can handle surface-polished or uncleaned scrap metals, including oxidized or dust-covered parts [160].

In practical applications, these instruments have demonstrated high analytical performance. For instance, Rao et al. [161] employed the Z-300 to analyze plutonium alloys, evaluating multiple chemometric methods including principal component regression, partial least squares regression (PLSR), and artificial neural networks. PLSR was found to provide the best performance, yielding limits of detection of 15 ppm and 20 ppm for Fe and Ni, respectively, with root-mean-square errors of 13.2 ppm and 22.8 ppm.

Carbon-dedicated analyzers in the Z series include the Z-902 C+, Z-901, and Z-200 C/C+. The Z-902 C+ is a dedicated NDT/PMI analyzer for measuring carbon in steels, stainless steels, and other alloys. It is equipped with dual spectrometers extending the spectral range down to 190 nm with high resolution [162]. The Z-901 covers 15–20 elements across common alloy matrices such as aluminum, stainless steel, iron, copper, nickel, and cobalt, using a 200–440 nm spectrometer. For carbon-focused applications, the Z-901 C Si variant serves as an auxiliary instrument alongside XRF for carbon analysis.

The Z-200 series includes the Z-200 C and Z-200 C+. The Z-200 C supports iron-based calibrations including carbon, whereas the Z-200 C+ extends calibration to both iron and stainless steel alloys. Equipped with a dedicated third spectrometer optimized for the carbon line, the Z-200 C+ can detect carbon concentrations as low as 0.007% in stainless steel, reliably distinguishing low- and high-carbon grades. It can also determine carbon equivalents for weldability assessment [163].

The B&W TEK NanoLIBS employs minimally destructive LIBS technology compliant with 21 CFR 1040.10, enabling rapid elemental analysis without reagents or lengthy sample preparation. It can detect low atomic number elements, including Li, Be, and C, which are beyond the capabilities of handheld XRF devices [151]. This capability allows effective identification of monatomic ionic salts such as KCl and NaCl. Under simulated field conditions, Senesi et al. [164, 165] demonstrated its utility for distinguishing compositional differences in carbonate mineral layers.

The Arun CALIBUS analyzer is designed for QA/QC, metallurgical manufacturing, petrochemical, mining, scrap recycling, and machining applications [166]. Covering a spectral range of 190−800 nm, it can detect more than 20 elements including C, Li, Be, B, Na, Mg, and Si. An integrated argon purge suppresses strong air absorption of spectral lines below 200 nm, such as C at 193.09 nm and S at 180.73 nm.

The PEGASUSLIBSSTM, developed by Vela Optoelectronics (Suzhou) Co., Ltd., enables rapid carbon analysis in alloys within 6−8 s. It combines a high-power, miniaturized nanosecond laser with advanced spectral denoising and multivariate algorithms including PLS and PCA, allowing accurate quantification of additional elements such as Al, Mg, Si, Li, Cu, Fe, Ti, and other industrially relevant metals [167].

The LMA00 analyzer, from Chengdu Ailiben Technology Co., Ltd., extends the detectable element range to C, N, O, Li, Be, and B, addressing limitations of XRF. It has been widely applied in ore detection, lithium mining, battery recycling, and alloy classification [168].

The ThermoFisher Scientific Niton Apollo is optimized for measuring carbon content in stainless steel and low-alloy steels [169]. Equipped with a high-efficiency laser and high-purity argon purge, it ensures reliable carbon detection and is commonly used for metal composition analysis, grade identification, carbon equivalent assessment, positive material identification (PMI), and trace impurity detection [170].

5.2 Other hLIBS instruments

In addition to the previously described instruments, several general-purpose handheld LIBS analyzers are shown in Fig. 30.

The Vulcan hLIBS analyzer, developed by Hitachi, is primarily used for the analysis of various alloys. For aluminum alloys, it achieves analysis speeds up to an order of magnitude faster than XRF. A built-in pre-burn feature enables accurate measurements on unpolished or unclean samples without extensive sample preparation [171]. The instrument supports report generation through Hitachi’s cloud service (EXTOPE Connect) and offers smartphone connectivity for direct storage and sharing of results. Vulcan has been employed for product quality assessment at Northeast Light Alloy Company Ltd., which produces over 82,000 tons of alloys annually [172].

In 2017, lead contamination in tap water pipelines in Flint, Michigan, USA, raised significant public health concerns. Hitachi’s Smart+ hLIBS analyzer was employed to detect lead concentrations in the water supply, and the resulting data were used to construct a map identifying locations where lead levels exceeded regulatory standards [173].

The Rigaku KT-100S, developed by Rigaku, is a handheld LIBS analyzer equipped with a miniature spectrometer and a high-resolution CMOS detector. It covers a wavelength range of 200−480 nm with an average resolution of 0.2 nm. Integrated quick-identification software enables rapid alloy grade determination. The KT-100S can analyze the chemical composition of ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, and various alloys, and is widely applied in quality inspection, material classification, alloy identification, safety prevention, and accident investigation [174].

The latest Rigaku KT-500 builds upon the KT-100 series by incorporating a High-Resolution Echelle Spectrometer (HiRES) module for rapid carbon analysis in steels and high-performance stainless steels [175].

Piorek et al. [176] demonstrated that the KT-100S can classify aluminum alloys with a low detection limit for Mg, Si, and Mn, achieving classification accuracy between 95% and 100%.

The OPTOSKY ATL6000 analyzer can identify and quantitatively analyze iron-, aluminum-, copper-, nickel-based, and other metal alloys [177].

The TSI ChemLite analyzer extends detection to light elements that cannot be measured by XRF. It can determine the chemical composition and grade of light metal alloys (Al, Mg, Ti) within three seconds, with lithium and beryllium detection limits as low as 1 ppm. This device is suitable for scrap metal recycling and industrial quality control [178].

The BRUKER EOS500 enables rapid quantification of light elements including Li, Mg, Al, and Si. Its analysis speed is nearly ten times faster than handheld XRF, making it suitable for quality inspection, metal processing, and positive material identification (PMI) [179].

The VELA Ali-1 hLIBS analyzer is primarily used for quantitative lithium analysis in aluminum alloys [157].

The Oxford mPulse hLIBS analyzer is designed for rapid identification and sorting of heavier alloys, including stainless steels, Ni, Cu, Co, and Ti alloys. Its measurement speed exceeds that of handheld XRF by more than five times, allowing detection of various alloys within one second [180].

The Jinyibo Export-1 hLIBS analyzer can analyze aluminum, magnesium, titanium, cobalt, chromium, nickel, and copper alloys within one second. It is mainly applied in waste sorting, but also suitable for stainless steel, tool steel, and low-alloy steel analysis [181].

The Aliben LIBS-Mini hLIBS analyzer overcomes the laser energy limitations of existing handheld systems, providing single-pulse energies up to 100 mJ. It supports direct analysis of plastics, rocks, soil, wood, and pharmaceutical samples [182].

Collectively, these handheld LIBS instruments provide versatile, rapid, and accurate elemental analysis across a wide range of industrial, metallurgical, and environmental applications. Their capabilities in detecting light elements, carbon, and complex alloys demonstrate the growing potential of portable LIBS technology for real-time quality control and field analysis.

5.3 Suitcase LIBS instruments

In the development of portable LIBS instruments, the box LIBS system often plays a transitional role. On the way to miniaturization and handheld instruments, the volume of each core component needs to be continuously compressed. The box LIBS instrument is a representative product in this process. It may be that the box system does not have a good balance between portability and functionality, so there are few reports on related products and applications.

In 2020, Yan et al. [183] at the Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics developed a portable LIBS system that integrates a handheld probe, a display unit, and a power-control module [Fig. 31(a)]. The sampling chamber is purged with inert gas, which enhances dust resistance and improves spectral stability for geological samples such as rock and ore. Using this platform, the authors quantified Cr, Ni, Si, Cu, Ti, and V in microalloyed steel, achieving limits of detection between 0.0082 and 0.073 wt%.

StellarNet and Kigre introduced the Porta-LIBS-2000 analyzer [Fig. 31(b)], which employs a micro-spectrometer with up to eight configurable channels to accommodate different spectral requirements [184]. The system enables real-time qualitative identification of trace elements in solids, gases, and liquids without routine calibration. Reported applications span industrial material inspection, mineral exploration, environmental monitoring, forensic analysis, pharmaceutical development, and quality control. In an early field study, Pierce et al. [185] applied a comparable instrument to lake-bottom sediments and observed marked variations in iron content between contaminated and uncontaminated sites.

StellarNet subsequently released the Stellar Case system [Fig. 31(c)], which provides functions and application scenarios broadly consistent with those of the Porta-LIBS-2000 [186]. Configurable spectrometer channels allow adaptation to specific analytical tasks, extending the instrument’s suitability for field deployment.

ALIBEN Science & Technology developed a high-energy portable LIBS platform equipped with an FPLSS laser that delivers pulses up to 100 mJ with a duration of 10 ns [187]. A Czerny-Turner spectrometer with a CCD detector and a spectral resolution of approximately 0.15 nm is integrated for signal acquisition. The instrument was applied to nickel-ore analysis, enabling quantification of Mn, Al, Fe, Cr, Zn, Mg, Si, and Ca. A detection limit of 27 mg·kg⁻¹ was achieved for Cr, demonstrating the system’s capability for multi-element field analysis.

6 Instruments for special application scenarios

The application of LIBS extends beyond laboratory and routine field analysis. Owing to its stand-off capability, minimal sample preparation, and robustness under harsh conditions, LIBS has been integrated into planetary exploration, deep-sea investigations, nuclear monitoring, and other extreme-environment missions. This section highlights representative LIBS instruments designed for these specialized scenarios and summarizes their key applications.

6.1 Mars exploration

The Martian atmosphere, which consists mainly of CO₂ at low pressure (approximately 96% CO₂ and 500–700 Pa), substantially alters the behavior of laser-induced plasma compared with terrestrial conditions [188]. Under this rarefied environment, both plasma formation and relaxation follow different physical pathways. As a result, the emission intensities of many spectral lines increase, self-absorption is reduced, line broadening characteristics are modified, and slight redshifts of certain spectral features can be observed. These environment-induced effects must be considered when interpreting spectra and establishing quantitative calibration models for LIBS measurements on Mars.

To address these deviations, in-situ calibration procedures are routinely applied. The MarSCoDe instrument (Mars Surface Composition Detector) acquires spectra from its onboard calibration targets under actual Martian conditions and compares them with laboratory spectra obtained from the same standards [189]. Correction factors derived from this comparison are then applied to surface measurements, which improves the accuracy of quantitative elemental analysis. Using this strategy, analyses of materials at the Tianwen-1 landing site indicate that aluminous smectite represents the principal hydrated mineral, accompanied by minor opal, sulfates and several other secondary phases. The total abundance of hydrated minerals in the investigated soils is estimated to be approximately 7 wt.% [190]. To support broader scientific use, a Mars LIBS spectral database has been developed by Shandong University and released through the National Space Science Data Center, providing open access to standard spectra for the research community [191].

Since the landing of “Curiosity” in 2012, both the United States and China have successively deployed the “Perseverance” and “Zhurong” rovers on Mars, and LIBS has been included in each mission as a core component of remote geochemical analysis. On May 15, 2021, China’s Zhurong rover achieved its first successful landing and carried the Mars Surface Composition Detector (MarSCoDe), which performs compositional analysis of Martian rocks and soils using LIBS technology [192].

MarSCoDe [188] is composed of a biaxial pointing mirror, an optical head, and a calibration target assembly mounted outside the rover, together with a spectrometer module and a payload controller located inside the rover. The optical head, illustrated in Fig. 32, integrates the laser-emitting module, an autofocus system, a remote micro-imager, and a telescope. These subsystems collectively support target acquisition, focusing, imaging, and laser-induced plasma generation for quantitative spectral measurements.

In 2021, the United States deployed the “Perseverance” rover to Jezero Crater, equipped with the upgraded SuperCam instrument [193]. In addition to the original LIBS and remote micro-imager capabilities, SuperCam incorporates time-resolved Raman spectroscopy, luminescence spectroscopy, and visible–infrared reflectance spectroscopy. These complementary techniques provide enhanced remote mineralogical identification and enable the detection of potential organic compounds related to ancient Martian environments [194].

Figure 33 presents the main units and subcomponents of SuperCam [194, 195]. The Mast Unit houses the primary laser system, which offers two excitation wavelengths through two Galilean beam expanders, as well as the telescope, a continuous-wave focusing laser, and a microphone. The optical box integrates the infrared spectrometer and the remote micro-imager, whose detector is a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) device. Light in the 245−853 nm range is delivered through an optical fiber to the demultiplexer in the Body Unit, which distributes the signal to three spectrometers covering ultraviolet, violet, and the visible-orange-red spectral ranges. Each spectrometer employs a thermoelectrically cooled charge-coupled device (CCD) for stable and high-sensitivity detection.

6.2 Deep-sea exploration

In deep-sea environments, the high-pressure water column significantly suppresses plasma formation, leading to reduced LIBS signal intensity, shortened plasma lifetimes, pronounced line broadening, and elevated continuous backgrounds. At a depth of 1503 m, Ocean University of China enhanced signal intensity by approximately fivefold through iron-substrate-assisted in situ measurements, demonstrating a practical strategy for mitigating high-pressure effects [196].

Sun’s group at the Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences further addressed these challenges by displacing seawater from the sample surface with helium, thereby forming a localized high-pressure gas environment. This approach effectively improved plasma generation and spectral quality. Under pressures up to 60 MPa, equivalent to water depths of approximately 6000 m, their system successfully acquired LIBS spectra from deep-sea solid minerals, confirming its feasibility for extreme-pressure applications [197].

The oceans cover approximately 360 million km² and have an average depth of about 3,795 m, making seabed exploration technically demanding and strategically important. High hydrostatic pressure, complex fluid environments, and limited accessibility pose significant obstacles to in situ chemical analysis. Recent efforts have therefore focused on developing portable LIBS systems capable of robust operation at depth.

In 2017, Golik et al. [198, 199] developed a remotely operated underwater LIBS system for compositional analysis of seawater and seabed sediments (Fig. 34). The device operated to 150 m depth and supported immersion speeds up to 1 m·s⁻¹, demonstrating the feasibility of remotely deployed LIBS for sediment and water chemistry surveys.

Also in 2017, Zheng’s group at Ocean University of China reported a compact LIBS system rated to 1500 m (Fig. 35). The system integrates a 1064 nm Nd:YAG pulsed laser, a fiber-coupled spectrometer, an optical module, and an electronic controller within a pressure housing. This platform was deployed in the Manus hydrothermal field and detected Li, Na, K, Ca and Mg in hydrothermal fluids and deposits [201]. In 2020, Zheng et al. introduced a lighter, more compact version (LIBSea II) and demonstrated its operation from the remotely operated vehicle “Seahorse”. Laboratory and field tests on metals, alloys and manganese nodules produced clear spectral lines for K, Na, Ca and CaOH at a depth of 1400 m [202].

Sun’s group at the Shenyang Institute of Automation designed a deep-sea LIBS chemical sensor for ROV-based, real-time element detection (Fig. 36). To overcome plasma suppression under extreme pressure, the group developed a gas-environment generation technique that displaces seawater from the sample surface and sustains a stable, controllable gas pocket even at approximately 6000 m depth. This approach substantially improved plasma excitation and enabled successful in situ spectral acquisition during deep trials [197].

6.3 Nuclear industry

In nuclear environments involving uranium ores, nuclear fuels, and fusion devices, radiation constraints impose strict requirements on sensing hardware. LIBS instruments used in these scenarios have been engineered to support non-contact and remotely operated analysis, with dedicated improvements in laser delivery, plasma-light collection, and spectral detection. Such adaptations enable reliable in-situ and stand-off compositional diagnostics under high-radiation conditions, ensuring operational safety while maintaining analytical performance.

Wu’s group at Xi’an Jiaotong University implemented a fiber-optic LIBS system that transmits both excitation and emission signals through optical fibers exceeding 50 m in length. This configuration enabled uranium detection with a limit of detection of 142 mg·kg⁻¹, demonstrating the feasibility of long-distance spectral interrogation in nuclear contexts [203]. Gao’s group at the China Institute of Atomic Energy increased spectral-collection efficiency by roughly 50-fold using an enhanced plasma-radiation collector and achieved detection of uranium and thorium in gaseous radioactive effluents at the ng·m⁻³ level [204]. At Oak Ridge National Laboratory, LIBS was applied for online monitoring of aerosols from molten salt reactor experiments, enabling observation of hydrogen isotope exchange from protium to deuterium enrichment [205].

Ding’s group at Dalian University of Technology developed an in-situ measurement system for fuel retention within magnetic-confinement fusion vacuum vessels [Fig. 37(a)]. Their platform supports direct assessment of deposition, co-deposition, and dynamic retention, thus providing a route for monitoring tritium and impurity accumulation under operational conditions [206]. Xiao et al. at the University of Michigan designed a dual-pulse LIBS instrument suitable for field deployment and integrated it with multi-sensor robotic transport for dry cask inspections. This system was demonstrated for chlorine detection on weld surfaces of spent-fuel stainless-steel storage tanks [Fig. 37(b)] [207].

In addition to academic progress, Applied Photonics Ltd. has developed several engineered LIBS systems tailored for challenging environments. These instruments feature rugged laser delivery, compact detection modules, and field-ready opto-mechanical designs. They have been deployed in nuclear monitoring, long-distance telemetry, downhole geological drilling, and underwater analysis, illustrating the technological readiness and cross-sector applicability of commercial LIBS solutions (Fig. 38) [208].

6.4 High temperature molten alloy metallurgy

High-temperature molten-alloy metallurgy requires continuous compositional monitoring to support effective process control. However, the molten-metal environment presents multiple obstacles to optical plasma acquisition, including extreme temperatures, surface instability, particle ejection, and strong thermal radiation. At present, most non-ferrous metallurgical plants still rely on manual sampling, cooling, and laboratory analysis. This offline workflow introduces substantial delays, restricts real-time regulation of smelting operations, and reduces both production efficiency and energy utilization. In addition, variability in raw-material quality and fluctuations in operating conditions lead to rapid and frequent compositional changes within the melt. These challenges highlight the need for LIBS systems capable of providing stable sampling, reliable plasma generation, and robust optical collection through dedicated stabilization units and protective opto-mechanical designs suitable for extreme metallurgical environments.

The GS-LIBS series developed by Hefei Gold Star M&E comprises offline and online laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy systems designed for metallurgical and industrial process analysis. The main configurations and their reported applications are outlined below.

The GS-LIBS2100 is an offline component-analysis instrument intended for rapid material characterization either in front of the furnace or in a laboratory environment [Fig. 39(a)] [209]. The system covers a spectral range of 190 to 570 nm and can detect elements with concentrations above approximately 0.01 wt%. It has been applied in metallurgy, environmental monitoring, agriculture and geological investigation. Guo and co-workers reported its use in copper-smelting processes. Four representative materials, including matte, crude copper, copper concentrate and slag, were analyzed. Blind source separation was applied to the acquired spectra and characteristic signatures corresponding to Cu, Fe and Ca were identified [210].

The GS-LIBS2200 and GS-LIBS2500 are online LIBS systems designed for elemental analysis in metallurgical production environments [Fig. 39(b)] [211, 212]. The GS-LIBS2200 is configured with an independent detection probe and a control cabinet, and the operational detection distance ranges from 1 to 4 m. It is suitable for online analysis of molten metals, solid blocks and powder particles. During high-temperature molten analysis, the measured signal is often affected by dust, smoke and fluctuations of the melt surface. To improve spectral stability, each measurement typically uses a sequence of approximately 3,000 laser pulses, and the total acquisition time is about three minutes. This procedure yields spectra with high signal quality [121]. A remote sensing configuration with a detection distance of about 2.5 m is also used to reduce the risk of interference from splashing molten material.

The GS-LIBS2500 is designed for conveyor-based applications and operates at detection distances below 1.1 m. It is applicable to iron concentrate, blended ore and mixed raw materials. According to previous reports by the development team, these systems may adopt Schwarzschild reflective telescope optics. Under typical focusing conditions, the laser spot diameter is approximately 0.5 to 1 mm, and spectral similarity reaches 0.99 at distances between 70 and 220 mm [213].

The GS-LIBS3200 [Fig. 39(c)] extends the detection distance to approximately 4 m and is intended for remote analysis of high-temperature melts such as matte, slag, smelting-furnace nickel matte and blast-furnace molten iron. This standoff configuration supports safer operation in environments with severe splashing and intense thermal radiation.

In 2021, Xu et al. employed the GS-LIBS2200 for long-term online monitoring of matte and low-nickel matte melts [211]. The LIBS results were compared with those obtained by XRF. The two methods showed good agreement. The average absolute error of the LIBS measurements was 0.61% and the average relative error was 1.1%.

SECOPTA has developed the FiberLIBS product series for industrial real-time and online inspection. FiberLIBS SP [Fig. 40(c)], also referred to as MineralLIBS) is designed for the analysis of materials transported on conveyor systems. It has been applied to the detection of coal, salt, ores, sintered materials, and other minerals [214−216]. meltLIBS [Fig. 40(a)] is used for online analysis and process control of molten metals [217]. By integrating the functions of both systems, FiberLIBS inline [Fig. 40(b)] can be used for liquid metal monitoring as well as the classification of coal and ore materials on conveyor belts. All devices employ a fiber-pumped microchip laser operating at 1064 nm with a repetition rate of up to 100 Hz [218, 219]. This repetition rate is significantly higher than that of Nd:YAG-based systems and provides a clear advantage in high-speed imaging, scanning, and three-dimensional analysis.

Research groups at the Chinese Academy of Sciences have developed several representative LIBS systems for online metallurgical monitoring. In 2018, Zhao’s group at the Institute of Optics and Electronics designed an engineering prototype for vacuum alloy smelting that enables real-time evaluation of metallurgical conditions and alloy composition. Sun’s group at the Institute of Automation subsequently developed two complementary analyzers, including an online slurry analyzer (SIA-LIBSlurry, Fig. 41) and an online liquid-metal analyzer (SIA-LIBSmelt) [220]. These instruments were conceived to address the persistent challenges encountered in solid–liquid mixtures and high-temperature melts, where weak plasma emission, low excitation efficiency, surface splashing, strong spectral fluctuations, and complex mineral matrices often hinder stable quantitative analysis.

To meet these requirements, the systems incorporate several targeted technical innovations. Dual-pulse excitation combined with multi-angle simultaneous detection improves plasma generation and enhances signal acquisition under heterogeneous sampling conditions. A stabilized liquid-jet configuration together with an optical contamination-prevention scheme reduces the influence of splashing during plasma formation. Spectral-fluctuation compensation based on feedback from plasma-morphology imaging enables joint use of imaging and spectroscopic information, which markedly improves measurement repeatability. In addition, dedicated spectral-feature extraction and chemometric modeling strategies were developed to accommodate variable mineral compositions and to construct reliable calibration models despite limited reference samples. These advances support robust online measurement of liquid-metal compositions in industrial processes, including steelmaking, aluminum smelting, electrolytic aluminum production, and copper smelting.

6.5 Coal

Coal has a carbon content that typically exceeds 70% by mass. This composition leads to strong self-absorption in LIBS spectra. Multiple interfering elements are also present in coal, and powders with different particle sizes interact with the laser in different ways. These factors reduce the accuracy of quantitative analysis. Offline analyzers commonly use pretreatment steps such as adding binders and pressing samples into pellets. These steps help stabilize the plasma and improve signal reproducibility. Near-line analyzers reduce processing delays by placing automated sampling units next to conveyor belts or feed pipelines. The sampling modules collect representative coal samples and deliver them directly for LIBS measurement.

Wang’s group at Tsinghua University developed a near-line LIBS analyzer for conveyor-belt and coal-powder pipeline applications (Fig. 42) [221]. For belt-based measurements, the system integrates automated modules for crushing, drying, splitting, grinding, pellet pressing, sample introduction, LIBS detection, and waste handling. Spectra acquired in situ were first correlated with carbon content using a physics-guided model, and the residuals were subsequently corrected with a data-driven model, resulting in accurate quantification of major coal constituents.

Yao’s group at the South China University of Technology designed conveyor-belt-based and particle-stream-based LIBS analyzers (Fig. 43) for fully online coal-quality monitoring. These systems enabled real-time measurement of calorific value and carbon content. Reported mean absolute errors for ash, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and calorific value were 1.76%, 2.29%, 2.41%, and 0.74 MJ·kg⁻¹, respectively.

Zhang’s group at Shanxi University developed an offline automated LIBS analyzer (Fig. 44). The system integrates a stepping-motor sample stage and a high-speed compressed-air jet pump that creates a localized negative-pressure field around the plasma. This design removes excitation-induced aerosols and reduces aerosol-plasma interactions, improving the stability of pellet measurements. The analyzer has been applied in coal washing and coal chemical industries. Reported performance shows elemental measurement errors within 10% and dry-basis ash errors between 2.29% and 13.47% [223].

6.6 Agriculture and water quality environment

Soil provides the nutrient environment required for crop growth. It contains essential macronutrients such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium, and micronutrients such as copper, zinc, and manganese. Soil can also contain hazardous heavy metals including lead, cadmium, and mercury. While nutrients promote plant development, heavy metals introduced through fertilizers may accumulate in crops and enter the food chain, resulting in notable health risks [224].

Dong’s group from the Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences developed the SmartSoil system (Fig. 45), which uses LIBS to measure major nutrients and heavy metals in soil [225]. The system enables rapid, simultaneous, on-site analysis of multiple soil elements and provides technical support for precision agriculture and environmental monitoring. Liu’s group at Zhejiang University developed an integrated rapid-detection platform combining LIBS signal optimization, environmental regulation, phase transformation, and AI modeling. The system enables fast quantitative analysis of heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Pb, and As [226].

To meet the demand for miniaturized and rapid trace-element detection in water, Zheng’s group at Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications employed solution-cathode glow discharge atomic emission spectroscopy, achieving ppb-level detection of metal elements in environmental water [227]. For online monitoring of industrial smoke-dust composition, Liu’s group from Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology applied LIBS to characterize heavy-metal content and particle-size variations under different welding temperatures [228].

6.7 Domestication and miniaturization of LIBS instruments

The high cost and large size of LIBS instruments remain major barriers to large-scale deployment. To address these limitations, several groups in China have focused on developing compact, low-cost components and open-access software tools.

Zhang’s group at Xi’an University of Electronic Science and Technology developed a nanosecond laser with an output energy of 12±0.12 mJ. The laser head measures only 25 mm×25 mm×78 mm and weighs 1.38 kg, demonstrating significant progress in miniaturization [229]. Li’s group at South China Normal University investigated the use of high-repetition-rate fiber lasers as substitutes for conventional solid-state lasers, which substantially reduces system cost [230]. Guo’s group at Huazhong University of Science and Technology designed a compact and low-cost timing controller to replace commercial DG645 units. The group also introduced a detection module that integrates optical filters with a gated PMT, resulting in improved sensitivity and system integration [231]. In addition, Su’s group at Northwest Normal University developed laser-induced plasma simulation software and established a public LIBS simulation and experimental database, providing valuable resources for instrument design and algorithm development [232].

7 Summary and forecast

Recent years have seen a steady rise in publications related to LIBS techniques and instrumentation, reflecting the growing interest in rapid on-site analysis, multi-element detection, and remote sensing. LIBS instruments offer clear advantages in speed and analytical coverage, although their acceptance in commercial markets remains limited and several technical challenges continue to hinder wider deployment [233]. A major constraint lies in the intrinsic instability of laser-induced plasma. Nanosecond laser ablation typically produces a low-temperature and high-density plasma with strong temporal and spatial fluctuations. The plasma absorbs and scatters the incident laser, generates shockwaves, and limits the effective transfer of laser energy to the sample. These features lead to marked fluctuations in spectral intensity, self-absorption, and matrix effects. As a result, the quantitative accuracy of LIBS remains lower than that of many traditional spectroscopic techniques [15, 234].

Future progress will depend on shifting the focus from simple signal enhancement to strategies that simultaneously improve plasma repeatability and spectral stability. Promising approaches include the modulation of plasma evolution through beam shaping to achieve uniform ablation and spatial confinement to regulate shockwave propagation. Data-driven modulation methods also deserve attention. These methods integrate plasma homology and heterogeneity information from LIBS spectra, acoustic signals, shockwave data, and imaging to achieve complementary correction. Quantitative calibration models can be improved by combining dominant-factor strategies with PLS and evaluating performance with metrics such as RMSE and RPD rather than relying solely on R². Advances in spectral acquisition and analytical principles will also play an important role. Studies on the mechanisms of plasma generation and the establishment of standardized spectral models are needed. New excitation schemes that reduce matrix interference are of interest. The integration of LIBS with Raman, fluorescence, or infrared spectroscopy may allow more comprehensive characterization of elemental and molecular information.

The development of core components remains essential for the long-term competitiveness of LIBS instrumentation. Independent fabrication of ICCDs is expected to accelerate, and the feasibility of using CMOS cameras for plasma monitoring is being explored. The respective strengths of low-duty-cycle solid-state lasers and high-repetition-rate fiber lasers continue to be clarified in practical applications. Miniaturization is another important trend. Fiber-coupled lasers are well suited for field instruments, and progress in compact spectrometers will further support portable LIBS systems. Instrument manufacturing is only the initial step; mature software platforms are also needed. These platforms should integrate system analysis tools, algorithms, and application-oriented databases.

Intelligent spectral processing has become a central research direction. Simple averaging can mask meaningful spectral variations, and excessive preprocessing may reduce model interpretability or even discard useful information. Thus, model development should emphasize clarity, robustness, and application relevance. With the rapid progress of artificial intelligence, including the adoption of large language models in analytical chemistry, new strategies for multitask and multimodal spectral analysis are emerging. Current research explores the construction of generalized spectral matrices using multidimensional parameters such as delay time and laser energy [235], the fusion of heterogeneous plasma information, data augmentation for improved generalization, multitask learning for enhanced quantitative accuracy, and transfer learning to bridge laboratory and operational samples [236].

Overall, the future development of LIBS will depend on coordinated progress in plasma control, complementary spectroscopy, instrument engineering, and intelligent data analysis. These efforts will support the transition of LIBS from laboratory research to stable and reliable real-world applications.

References

[1] Y. M. Guo , L. B. Guo , J. M. Li , H. D. Liu , Z. H. Zhu , X. Y. Li , Y. F. Lu , and X. Y. Zeng , Research progress in Asia on methods of processing laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy data, Front. Phys. (Beijing) 11(5), 114212 (2016)

[2] J. Winefordner , I. Gornushkin , T. Correll , E. Gibb , B. Smith , and N. Omenetto , Comparing several atomic spectrometric methods to the super stars: Special emphasis on laser induced breakdown spectrometry, LIBS, a future super star, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 19(9), 1061 (2004)

[3] L. B. Guo , D. Zhang , L. X. Sun , S. C. Yao , L. Zhang , Z. Z. Wang , Q. Q. Wang , H. B. Ding , Y. Lu , Z. Y. Hou , and Z. Wang , Development in the application of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy in recent years: A review, Front. Phys. (Beijing) 16(2), 22500 (2021)

[4] T. Takahashi , Application of LIBS to in situ chemical analysis of deep-sea mineral deposits, IEEJ Journal 142(2), 85 (2022)

[5] K. Rammelkamp , S. Schroeder , S. Kubitza , D. S. Vogt , S. Frohmann , P. B. Hansen , U. Boettger , F. Hanke , and H. W. Huebers , Low-level LIBS and Raman data fusion in the context of in situ Mars exploration, J. Raman Spectrosc. 51(9), 1682 (2020)

[6] Q. Zeng , G. Chen , W. Li , Z. Li , J. Tong , M. Yuan , B. Wang , H. Ma , Y. Liu , L. Guo , and H. Yu , Classification of steel based on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy combined with restricted Boltzmann machine and support vector machine, Plasma Sci. Technol. 24(8), 084009 (2022)

[7] J. Lin , J. Yang , Y. Huang , and X. Lin , Defect identification of metal additive manufacturing parts based on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and machine learning, Appl. Phys. B 127(12), 173 (2021)

[8] H. Guo , Z. Feng , M. Cui , Y. Deguchi , L. Tan , D. Zhang , C. Yao , and D. Zhang , Rapid analysis of steel powder for 3D printing using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, ISIJ Int. 62(5), 883 (2022)

[9] M. H. Kabir , M. L. Guindo , R. Chen , A. Sanaeifar , and F. Liu , Application of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and chemometrics for the quality evaluation of foods with medicinal properties: A review, Foods 11(14), 2051 (2022)

[10] L. J. Martino and C. A. D’ Angelo , Quantification of dimethoate and chlorpyrifos residues in green leafy vegetables by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B 195, 106485 (2022)

[11] D. Musyoka Wayua , H. Kalambuka Angeyo , A. Dehayem-Kamadjeu , and K. Amiga Kaduki , Direct analysis of blood for diagnostic metals for malaria by peak-free laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) with artificial neural networks (ANN) and partial least squares (PLS), Anal. Lett. 55(17), 2669 (2022)

[12] R. Zhang , S. Hu , C. Ma , T. Zhang , and H. Li , Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) in biomedical analysis, Trends Analyt. Chem. 181, 117992 (2024)

[13] C. Niu , X. M. Cheng , T. L. Zhang , X. Wang , B. He , W. D. Zhang , Y. Z. Feng , J. T. Bai , and H. Li , Novel method based on hollow laser trapping-LIBS-machine learning for simultaneous quantitative analysis of multiple metal elements in a single microsized particle in air, Anal. Chem. 93(4), 2281 (2021)

[14] C. Niu , Y. Cheng , K. Wang , C. Guan , M. Zhang , J. Song , Y. Liu , Z. Hu , Z. Ouyang , and L. Guo , High-sensitivity bioaerosol detection via optical trapping-assisted second harmonic generation and laser-induced plasma: Synergistic surface and internal analysis, ACS Photonics 12(5), 2475 (2025)

[15] Z. Wang , M. S. Afgan , W. L. Gu , Y. Z. Song , Y. Wang , Z. Y. Hou , W. R. Song , and Z. Li , Recent advances in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy quantification: From fundamental understanding to data processing, Trends Analyt. Chem. 143, 116385 (2021)

[16] S. Palanco , S. Aranda , F. Mancebo , M. C. López-Escalante , D. Leinen , and J. R. Ramos-Barrado , Towards airborne laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy: A signal recovery method for LIBS instruments subjected to vibrations, Spectrochim. Acta B 187, 106342 (2022)

[17] V. Detalle and X. Bai , The assets of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for the future of heritage science, Spectrochim. Acta B 191, 106407 (2022)

[18] L. Brooks and G. Gaustad , The Potential for XRF & LIBS Handheld Analyzers to Perform Material Characterization in Scrap Yards, J. Sustain. Metall. 7(2), 732 (2021)

[19] D. H. Zhu, Theoretical analysis and experimental research of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy in elemental analysis, PhD, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Jiangsu, China, 2012 (in Chinese)

[20] K. L. Eland , D. N. Stratis , T. Lai , M. A. Berg , S. R. Goode , and S. M. Angel , Some comparisons of LIBS measurements using nanosecond and picosecond laser pulses, Appl. Spectrosc. 55(3), 279 (2001)

[21] Q. Y. Lin and Y. X. Duan , Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy: From experimental platform to field instrument, Chin. J. Anal. Chem. 45(9), 1405 (2017)

[22] M. Baudelet , C. C. C. Willis , L. Shah , and M. Richardson , Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy of copper with a 2 μm thulium fiber laser, Opt. Express 18(8), 7905 (2010)

[23] Z. Zhou,X. Tian,L. Sun,Z. Peng,Z. Guo,L. Qi, Identification of aluminum alloy grades by fiber-laser induced breakdown spectroscopy combined with support vector machine, Laser & Optoelectron. Prog. 55(6), 063002 (2018)

[24] S. Musazzi,U. Perini (Eds.), Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy: Theory and Applications, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 2014

[25] Q. Xue , S. Wang , and F. Lu , Aberration correction of Czerny-Turner imaging spectrometer carried by satellite, Acta Opt. Sin. 29(1), 35 (2009)

[26] W. Xianjun , L. Yaxue , Z. Haiyan , and G. Hanming , Design of optical system of miniature spectrometer for ultrahigh-resolution, Opto-Electron. Eng. 45, 180228 (2018)

[27] R. Noll, Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, Fundamentals and Applications, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 2012

[28] R. Zhang, Study on the key technology of the Echelle spectrometer and its application system, PhD, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China, 2018 (in Chinese)

[29] X. Fu, Implementation of LIBS Echelle spectrometer and research on data processing method, PhD, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China, 2018 (in Chinese)

[30] K. Juan , C. Yuqi , Y. Yuxiang , and L. Runhua , Development and creation of a remote-controlled underwater laser induced breakdown spectrometer for analysis of the chemical composition of sea water and bottom sediments, AOPC 2017, Optical Spectroscopy and Imaging 29, 099001 (2017)

[31] Y. Fu , R. A. Warren , W. B. Jones , B. W. Smith , and N. Omenetto , Detecting temporal changes of self-absorption in a laser-induced copper plasma from time-resolved photomultiplier signal emission profiles, Appl. Spectrosc. 73(2), 163 (2019)

[32] W. Feng,F. Wang,W. Zeng,G. Huang,Z. Wang,J. Zhou,Z. Cai, CCD Spectrum Measurement System for Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, Laser & Optoelectron. Prog. 50(1), 013002 (2013)

[33] F. J. Duan, Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy ICCD time-resolved measurement method and system, Tianjin, Tianjin Beiyang Limited Liability Patent Agency Office ZL201810405780.6, 2018 (in Chinese)

[34] S. Yao , Z. Yu , S. Xu , X. Yao , H. Qin , Z. Lu , and J. Lu , Repeatability improvement in laser induced plasma emission of particle flow by aberration-diminished focusing, Spectrochim. Acta B 175, 106014 (2021)

[35] F. Abt , A. Hess , and F. Dausinger , Focusing high-power, single-mode laser beams, Photon. Spectra 42, 78 (2008)

[36] Y. Tian , L. Wang , B. Xue , Q. Chen , and Y. Li , Laser focusing geometry effects on laser-induced plasma and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy in bulk water, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 34(1), 118 (2019)

[37] J. Jia,H. Fu,H. Wang,Q. Zhou,Z. Ni,F. Dong, Improvement of beam shape modification on stability of laser induced breakdown spectroscopy, Chin. J. Lasers 46(3), 0311004 (2019)

[38] J. Jia , H. Fu , Z. Hou , H. Wang , Z. Wang , F. Dong , Z. Ni , and Z. Zhang , Effect of laser beam shaping on the determination of manganese and chromium elements in steel samples using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B 163, 105747 (2020)

[39] W. L. Guo, Integration and application of LIBS system based on aerosol composition analysis, MSc, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China, 2020 (in Chinese)

[40]

[41] D. Redoglio,U. Perini,S. Musazzi, LIBS collection optics: Comparative analysis of different mirror-based configurations, in: 2014 Fotonica AEIT Italian Conference on Photonics Technologies, 2014, pp 1–4

[42] J. Moros , J. A. Lorenzo , and J. J. Laserna , Standoff detection of explosives: Critical comparison for ensuing options on Raman spectroscopy–LIBS sensor fusion, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 400(10), 3353 (2011)

[43] I. Osticioli , N. F. C. Mendes , A. Nevin , F. P. S. C. Gil , M. Becucci , and E. Castellucci , Analysis of natural and artificial ultramarine blue pigments using laser induced breakdown and pulsed Raman spectroscopy, statistical analysis and light microscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B 73(3), 525 (2009)

[44] S. Sharma,A. Misra,P. Lucey,R. Wiens,S. Clegg, Combined remote libs and raman spectroscopy of minerals using a single laser source, in: 38th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, League City, Texas., 2007

[45] Y. Ding , D. Tian , C. Li , Y. Duan , and G. Yang , Design and development of a miniature digital delay generator for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Instrum. Sci. Technol. 43(1), 115 (2015)

[46] Q. S. Li , J. M. Li , P. Yang , X. Y. Yang , Z. Q. Hao , M. Shen , Y. N. Zhu , L. B. Guo , X. Y. Li , and X. Y. Zeng , Development of a compact synchronizer for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B 38, 595 (2018)

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52] P. Lei , Q. Yan , B. Lu , Z. Bin , J. Mei , C. Zhen , W. Jian , X. Li , Y. Li , and Y. Hang , Review of instrumentation development of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Chin. J. Quantum Electron. 41, 399 (2024)

[53]

[54]

[55] A. K. Myakalwar,C. Sandoval,M. Velásquez,D. Sbarbaro,B. Sepúlveda,J. Yáñez, LIBS as a spectral sensor for monitoring metallic molten phase in metallurgical applications - A review, Minerals (Basel) 11(10), 1073 (2021)

[56] M. S. Afgan , S. Sheta , Y. Song , W. Gu , and Z. Wang , Improved signal stability using an auxiliary flow-based chamber for aerosol laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B 180, 106204 (2021)

[57] G. S. Senesi , R. S. Harmon , and R. R. Hark , Field-portable and handheld laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy: Historical review, current status and future prospects, Spectrochim. Acta B 175, 106013 (2021)

[58] C. Liu,Z. Ling,J. Zhang,Z. Wu,H. Bai,Y. Liu, A Stand-Off Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) System Applicable for Martian Rocks Studies, Remote Sens. (Basel) 13(23), 4773 (2021)

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62] P. Modlitbová , Z. Farka , M. Pastucha , P. Pořízka , K. Novotný , P. Skládal , and J. Kaiser , Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy as a novel readout method for nanoparticle-based immunoassays, Mikrochim. Acta 186(9), 629 (2019)

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67] A. L. Olatibi , N. Y. Aldaleeli , N. ELtamimi , K. A. Elsayed , N. A. Abdel Ghany , A. Elhassan , Utilizing MoO₃ , MoO₃ doped Y₂ O₃ for heavy metals (Hg , and Pb , Cu) removal from wastewater monitored by p-XRF and LIBS techniques, Appl. Surface Sc. Adv. 22, 100613 (2024)

[68] K. Elsayed , W. Tawfik , A. E. M. Khater , T. S. Kayed , and M. Fikry , Fast determination of phosphorus concentration in phosphogypsum waste using calibration-free LIBS in air and helium, Opt. Quantum Electron. 54(2), 96 (2022)

[69]

[70]

[71] M. Shih , Y. Yuan , and G. Shi , Comparative analysis of LDA, PLS-DA, SVM, RF, and voting ensemble for discrimination origin in greenish-white to white nephrites using LIBS, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 39(6), 1560 (2024)

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79] M. Mustafa , A. Latif , M. Jehangir , and K. Siraj , Nd: YAG laser irradiation consequences on calcium and magnesium in human dental tissues, Lasers Dent. Sci. 6(2), 107 (2022)

[80]

[81]

[82] K. Berlo , V. van Hinsberg , R. Lauzeral , F. Zwillich , and J. Gonzalez , The analysis of volcanic brines by freezing stage tandem LIBS-ICP-MS, Chem. Geol. 603, 120910 (2022)

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88] D. Palásti , A. Metzinger , T. Ajtai , Z. Bozóki , B. Hopp , É. Kovács-Széles , and G. Galbács , Qualitative discrimination of coal aerosols by using the statistical evaluation of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy data, Spectrochim. Acta B 153, 34 (2019)

[89] H. B. Andrews , L. R. Sadergaski , and K. G. Myhre , Neptunium transition probabilities estimated through laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) measurements, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 37(4), 768 (2022)

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93] T. Dietz , C. Gottlieb , P. Kohns , and G. Ankerhold , Comparison of atomic and molecular emission in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for the quantification of harmful species in cement-based materials, Spectrochim. Acta B 161, 105707 (2019)

[94] I. Cacho , I. Uria , P. Espana , S. Arnaiz , and A. Lopez-Urionabarrenechea , Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis applied to in-line sorting of brominated plastics from waste electric and electronic equipment, J. Polym. Environ. 33(1), 449 (2025)

[95] LIBS-Tracer, Benchtop laser-induced breakdown spectrometer, URL:

[96]

[97] Y. Yao , F. He , Q. Lin , Y. Tian , T. Zhang , B. Xu , X. Qi , and Y. Duan , Synchronous detection of heavy metal ions in aqueous solution by gold nanoparticle surface-enhanced laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 36(12), 2639 (2021)

[98] M. Wu , X. Wang , G. Niu , Z. Zhao , R. Zheng , Z. Liu , Z. Zhao , and Y. Duan , Ultrasensitive and simultaneous detection of multielements in aqueous samples based on biomimetic array combined with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Anal. Chem. 93(29), 10196 (2021)

[99] Q. Lin , S. Wang , G. Guo , Y. Tian , and Y. Duan , Novel laser induced breakdown spectroscopy – Raman instrumentation using a single pulsed laser and an echelle spectrometer, Instrum. Sci. Technol. 46(2), 163 (2018)

[100] G. Chen , Q. Zeng , W. Li , X. Chen , M. Yuan , L. Liu , H. Ma , B. Wang , Y. Liu , L. Guo , and H. Yu , Classification of steel using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy combined with deep belief network, Opt. Express 30(6), 9428 (2022)

[101]

[102] J. Li , Z. Zhu , R. Zhou , N. Zhao , R. Yi , X. Yang , X. Li , L. Guo , X. Zeng , and Y. Lu , Determination of carbon content in steels using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy assisted with laser-induced radical fluorescence, Anal. Chem. 89(15), 8134 (2017)

[103] J. Yan and X. Li , Research on a new portable laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy system and its application, Metallurgical Analysis 40, 66 (2020)

[104] J. Li , L. Guo , N. Zhao , X. Yang , R. Yi , K. Li , Q. Zeng , X. Li , X. Zeng , and Y. Lu , Determination of cobalt in low-alloy steels using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy combined with laser-induced fluorescence, Talanta 151, 234 (2016)

[105] H. Kopřivová , K. Kiss , L. Krbal , V. Stejskal , J. Buday , P. Porizka , M. Kaska , A. Ryska , and J. Kaiser , Imaging the elemental distribution within human malignant melanomas using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, Anal. Chim. Acta 1310, 342663 (2024)

[106]

[107]

[108] W. Yang,Z. Qian,Y. Cao,Y. Wei,C. Fu,T. Li,D. Lin,S. Li, LIBS monitoring and analysis of laser-based layered controlled paint removal from aircraft skin, J. Spectrosc. 2021, 1 (2021)

[109] E. Kocsis , A. Lukacs , and I. Szalai , Investigation of atmospheric pressure plasma treatment on PCB surface finishes, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 52(11), 5345 (2024)

[110]

[111]

[112]

[113] J. Wang , X. D. Han , G. M. Guo , G. H. Niu , S. Wang , Y. X. Duan , Q. W. Fan , and Q. Y. Lin , Novel combined instrumentation for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy for the in situ atomic and molecular analysis of minerals, Instrum. Sci. Technol. 47(5), 564 (2019)

[114] Y. Lu , Y. D. Li , Y. Li , Y. F. Wang , S. Wang , Z. M. Bao , and R. Zheng , Micro spatial analysis of seashell surface using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B 110, 63 (2015)

[115] C. J. He , W. H. Huang , Y. Q. Mao , A. Z. Li , K. M. Xu , H. Cui , L. R. Qiu , and W. Q. Zhao , Three-dimensional topographic and multi-elemental mapping by unilateral-shift-subtracting confocal controlled LIBS microscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B 188, 106340 (2022)

[116] Y. Li , L. Ding , Y. Wang , M. Shan , J. Cong , J. Lin , and M. Cui , In-situ dynamic correction of progressive ablation fluctuations in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) using Raman spectroscopy and deep learning, Talanta 290, 127762 (2025)

[117] Z. Wang , S. Shen , Y. Arima , C. Li , W. Zhou , S. Li , J. Yan , and Y. Deguchi , Improvement of the spatial resolution of the spatial mapping of metallic coatings by using picosecond LIBS, Spectrochim. Acta B 220, 107016 (2024)

[118] D. Sun , H. Li , G. Zhang , Y. Yin , M. Su , X. Bai , M. Sikorski , and D. Zhang , Exploring the viability of combined laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy for stratigraphic analysis of murals containing isomeric pigments: a case study on realgar and orpiment, Herit. Sci. 12(1), 254 (2024)

[119] S. Imashuku , H. Taguchi , S. Fujieda , S. Suzuki , and K. Wagatsuma , Three-dimensional lithium mapping of graphite anode using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Electrochim. Acta 293, 78 (2019)

[120] C. Niu , Z. Hu , X. Cheng , A. Gong , K. Wang , D. Zhang , S. Li , and L. Guo , Individual micron-sized aerosol qualitative analysis-combined raman spectroscopy and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy by optical trapping in air, Anal. Chem. 95(5), 2874 (2023)

[121] X. Yong,L. Cheng,Z. Z. Jin,C. Y. Pan,J. W. Jia, Application of LIBS Technology in Online Metallurgical Composition Analysis, Anhui Science & Technology, 2021, pp 42–44 (in Chinese)

[122]

[123]

[124]

[125]

[126]

[127] S. Merk , C. Scholz , S. Florek , and D. Mory , Increased identification rate of scrap metal using Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Echelle spectra, Spectrochim. Acta B 112, 10 (2015)

[128]

[129]

[130]

[131]

[132] P. Seidel , D. Ebert , R. Schinke , R. Möckel , S. Raatz , M. Chao , E. Niederschlag , T. Kreschel , R. Gloaguen , and A. D. Renno , Comparison of elemental analysis techniques for the characterization of commercial alloys, Metals (Basel) 11(5), 736 (2021)

[133]

[134]

[135]

[136]

[137] J. Novotný,M. Brada,M. Petrilak,D. Prochazka,K. Novotný,A. Hrdlička,J. Kaiser, A versatile interaction chamber for laser-based spectroscopic applications, with the emphasis on Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta B 101, 149 (2014)

[138] P. Pořízka , J. Klus , D. Prochazka , G. Vítková , M. Brada , J. Novotný , K. Novotný , and J. Kaiser , Assessment of the most effective part of echelle laser-induced plasma spectra for further classification using Czerny-Turner spectrometer, Spectrochim. Acta B 124, 116 (2016)

[139]

[140]

[141] K. Rifai,L. Ç. Özcan,F. R. Doucet,K. Rhoderick,F. Vidal, Ultrafast elemental mapping of platinum group elements and mineral identification in platinum-palladium ore using Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, Minerals 10, 207 (2020)

[142]

[143] K. Rifai,F. Doucet,L. Özcan,F. Vidal, LIBS core imaging at kHz speed: Paving the way for real-time geochemical applications, Spectrochim. Acta B 150, 43 (2018)

[144]

[145] K. Rifai,M. -C. Michaud Paradis,Z. Swierczek,F. Doucet,L. Özcan,A. Fayad,J. Li,F. Vidal, Emergences of new technology for ultrafast automated mineral phase identification and quantitative analysis using the CORIOSITY Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) system, Minerals 10, 918 (2020)

[146] K. Rifai , M. Constantin , A. Yilmaz , L. Ç. Özcan , F. R. Doucet , and N. Azami , Quantification of lithium and mineralogical mapping in crushed ore samples using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy, Minerals (Basel) 12(2), 253 (2022)

[147]

[148]

[149]

[150]

[151]

[152]

[153]

[154]

[155]

[156]

[157]

[158]

[159]

[160] C. Fabre , N. E. Ourti , J. Mercadier , J. Cardoso-Fernandes , F. Dias , M. Perrotta , F. Koerting , A. Lima , F. Kaestner , N. Koellner , R. Linnen , D. Benn , T. Martins , and J. Cauzid , Analyses of Li-rich minerals using Handheld LIBS tool, Data (Basel) 6(6), 68 (2021)

[161] A. P. Rao , P. R. Jenkins , D. M. Vu , A. K. II Auxier , Patnaik , and M. B. Shattan , Rapid quantitative analysis of trace elements in plutonium alloys using a handheld laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) device coupled with chemometrics and machine learning, Anal. Methods 13(30), 3368 (2021)

[162]

[163]

[164] G. S. Senesi , D. Manzini , and O. De Pascale , Application of a laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy handheld instrument to the diagnostic analysis of stone monuments, Appl. Geochem. 96, 87 (2018)

[165] G. S. Senesi , P. Manzari , A. Consiglio , and O. De Pascale , Identification and classification of meteorites using a handheld LIBS instrument coupled with a fuzzy logic-based method, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 33(10), 1664 (2018)

[166]

[167]

[168]

[169]

[170]

[171]

[172]

[173]

[174]

[175] n.d.) (Accessed 1 September 2025).

[176] S. Piorek , Rapid sorting of aluminum alloys with handheld µLIBS analyzer, Mater. Today Proc. 10, 348 (2019)

[177]

[178]

[179]

[180]

[181]

[182]

[183] A. Li , Q. F. Shao , and R. B. Liu , Review of new type portable laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy system, Chin. Optics 10(4), 426 (2017)

[184]

[185]

[186]

[187] F. Zha , G. Niu , Q. Lin , S. Wang , and Y. Duan , Design and evaluation of a new bench-top instrument for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Instrum. Sci. Technol. 45(6), 650 (2017)

[188] X. Wan , C. Li , H. Wang , W. Xu , J. Jia , Y. Xin , H. Ma , P. Fang , Z. Ling , and Design , Function, and Implementation of China’s First LIBS instrument (MarSCoDe) on the Zhurong Mars Rover, At. Spectr. 42(5), 294 (2021)

[189] T. Cai , C. Li , R. Xin , L. Bin , and D. Liu , Researchon the selection of Mars Onboard laser induced breakdown spectrometer (MarsCoDe) calibration samples, Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis 39, 1623 (2019)

[190] E. Ju , C. Liu , J. Chen , X. Zeng , Y. Xin , P. Liu , X. Fu , Z. Ling , and Detection of allophane by the Zhurong rover indicates water-limited alteration at Utopia Planitia , Mars, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 639, 118769 (2024)

[191]

[192] H. Tian , T. Zhang , Y. Jia , S. Peng , and C. Yan , Zhurong: Features and mission of China’s First Mars Rover, Innovation 2, 100121 (2021)

[193] A. Cousin , V. Sautter , C. Fabre , G. Dromart , G. Montagnac , C. Drouet , P. Y. Meslin , O. Gasnault , O. Beyssac , S. Bernard , E. Cloutis , O. Forni , P. Beck , T. Fouchet , J. R. Johnson , J. Lasue , A. M. Ollila , P. De Parseval , S. Gouy , B. Caron , J. M. Madariaga , G. Arana , M. B. Madsen , J. Laserna , J. Moros , J. A. Manrique , G. Lopez-Reyes , F. Rull , S. Maurice , and R. C. Wiens , SuperCam calibration targets on board the perseverance rover: Fabrication and quantitative characterization, Spectrochim. Acta B 188, 106341 (2022)

[194] J. A. Manrique , G. Lopez-Reyes , A. Cousin , F. Rull , S. Maurice , et al. SuperCam calibration targets: Design and development, Space Sci. Rev. 216(8), 138 (2020)

[195] R. C. Wiens , S. Maurice , S. H. Robinson , A. E. Nelson , P. Cais , et al. The SuperCam instrument suite on the NASA Mars 2020 Rover: Body unit and combined system tests, Space Sci. Rev. 217(1), 4 (2021)

[196] J. Guo , Y. Qin , M. Sui , Z. Zhang , J. Han , Y. Lu , K. Cheng , Y. Tian , and W. Ye , Research and experimental validation of solid substrate-assisted enhanced underwater in situ LIBS detection technology, Acta Opt. Sin. 44, 2401006 (2024)

[197] G. Lu , L. Sun , Z. Cong , and T. Chen , Study on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy in high-pressure helium gas environment for deep ocean applications, Talanta 270, 125531 (2024)

[198] T. Takahashi , S. Yoshino , Y. Takaya , T. Nozaki , K. Ohki , T. Ohki , T. Sakka , and B. Thornton , Quantitative in situ mapping of elements in deep-sea hydrothermal vents using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and multivariate analysis, Deep Sea Res. Part I 158, 103232 (2020)

[199] B. Thornton , T. Takahashi , T. Sato , T. Sakka , A. Tamura , A. Matsumoto , T. Nozaki , T. Ohki , and K. Ohki , Development of a deep-sea laser-induced breakdown spectrometer for in situ multi-element chemical analysis, Deep Sea Res. Part I 95, 20 (2015)

[200] S. S. Golik , D. Yu. Proschenko , I. G. Nagorniy , Y. S. Biryukova , M. Yu. Babiy , V. V. Lisitsa , A. V. Borovskiy , Y. N. Kulchin , A. Yu. Mayor , A. A. Ilyin , N. N. Golik , and T. A. Gevorgyan , Development and creation of a remote-controlled underwater laser induced breakdown spectrometer for analysis of the chemical composition of sea water and bottom sediments, AOPC 2017, Optical Spectroscopy and Imaging 10461, 50 (2017)

[201] J. Guo , Y. Lu , K. Cheng , J. Song , W. Ye , N. Li , and R. Zheng , Development of a compact underwater laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) system and preliminary results in sea trials, Appl. Opt. 56(29), 8196 (2017)

[202] C. Liu , J. Guo , Y. Tian , C. Zhang , K. Cheng , W. Ye , and R. Zheng , Development and field tests of a deep-sea laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) system for solid sample analysis in seawater, Sensors 20, 7341 (2020)

[203] X. Guo , J. Wu , M. Shi , X. Zhu , Y. Qiu , and J. Li , Quantitative measurement of uranium in ore using fiber‑optic laser‑induced breakdown spectroscopy and multivariate calibration, Chin. J. Lasers 51, 0811001 (2024)

[204] G. Zhixing , H. Fengming , H. Hongyu , L. Jing , C. Daqing , G. Jian , and W. Zhao , Field test of an enhanced LIPS to direct-monitor the elemental composition of particulate matters in polluted air, Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 65(5), 1359 (2023)

[205] H. B. Andrews , Z. B. Kitzhaber , D. Orea , and J. Mcfarlane , Real-time elemental and isotopic measurements of molten salt systems through laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147(1), 910 (2024)

[206] Z. Hu , N. Gierse , C. Li , J. Oelmann , D. Zhao , M. Tokar , X. Jiang , D. Nicolai , J. Wu , F. Ding , S. Brezinsek , H. Ding , G. N. Luo , and C. Linsmeier , Laser induced ablation spectroscopy for in situ characterization of the first wall on EAST tokamak, Fusion Eng. Des. 135, 95 (2018)

[207] X. Xiao , S. Le Berre , D. G. Fobar , M. Burger , P. J. Skrodzki , K. C. Hartig , A. T. Motta , and I. Jovanovic , Measurement of chlorine concentration on steel surfaces via fiber-optic laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy in double-pulse configuration, Spectrochim. Acta B 141, 44 (2018)

[208]

[209]

[210] J. Guo , C. Y. Pan , and Y. Xu , Unsupervised data mining assisted laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy was used to analyze the spectral structure of copper smelting, Metallurgical Analysis 40, 59 (2020)

[211] C. Y. Pan , R. S. Zhao , Y. Xu , Z. G. Zhang , T. F. Wang , and Z. Z. Jin , Application progress of online composition analysis of matte by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Metallurgical Analysis 41, 41 (2021)

[212] Su Yahui , Wang Guangqian , Pan Congyuan , Shen Chuan , Influence of sample position fluctuation on spectral characteristic parameters in telemetry LIBS system, Acta Optica Sinica 40, 0730001 (2020)

[213] Z. Y. Han , C. Y. Pan , N. An , X. W. Du , Y. S. Yu , The Auto-Focusing Remote Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy System, Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis 35, 304 (2015)

[214]

[215]

[216]

[217]

[218]

[219]

[220] P. Zhang , L. Sun , L. Qi , and H. Yu , On-line quantitative analysis of major elements in phosphate slurry using LIBS assisted by plasma information from orthogonal directions imaging, Measurement 234, 114827 (2024)

[221] Z. Hou,Z. Wang,T. Yuan,J. Liu,Z. Li,W. Ni, A hybrid quantification model and its application for coal analysis using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 31(3), 722 (2016)

[222] M. Dong , Z. Li , J. Cai , W. Lu , X. Chen , K. Bai , S. Yao , and J. Lu , Online analysis of coal particle flow by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy based on pelletized coal calibration samples and feature-based transfer learning, Spectrochim. Acta B 229, 107198 (2025)

[223] Z. Tian,S. Wang,L. Zhang,P. Zhang,Z. Ye,S. Jia, Development and application of LIBS-XRF coupled multi-spectrum coal quality analyser, Acta Photonica Sinica 52 (2023)

[224] J. Ren,Y. Zhao,K. Yu, LIBS in agriculture: A review focusing on revealing nutritional and toxic elements in soil, water, and crops, Comput. Electron. Agric. 197, 106986 (2022)

[225] S. Ma , F. Cao , X. Wen , F. Xu , H. Tian , X. Fu , and D. Dong , Detection of heavy metal ions using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy combined with filter paper modified with PtAg bimetallic nanoparticles, J. Hazard. Mater. 443, 130188 (2023)

[226] X. Li , J. Huang , R. Chen , Z. You , J. Peng , Q. Shi , G. Li , and F. Liu , Chromium in soil detection using adaptive weighted normalization and linear weighted network framework for LIBS matrix effect reduction, J. Hazard. Mater. 448, 130885 (2023)

[227] J. Wang , Y. He , S. Shata , M. J. Shultz , H. I. A. Qazi , M. Wu , N. Yan , G. Fei , and P. Zheng , Determination of metals in environmental waters by solution cathode glow discharge -atomic emission spectroscopy (SCGD-AES) with a syringe pump for sample introduction, Anal. Lett. 56(18), 2937 (2023)

[228] Y. Ye , N. Aizezi , J. Feng , B. Han , X. Li , Z. Su , L. Li , and Y. Liu , Advanced characterization of industrial smoke: particle composition and size analysis with single particle aerosol mass spectrometry and optimized machine learning, Anal. Chem. 97(10), 5554 (2025)

[229] B. Xu,Z. Feng,J. Hou,S. Wang,D. Zhang,H. Xu, A 4-dimensional spectroscopic diagnostic method for laser-induced plasma using femtosecond filamentation probe, Ultrafast Science 5, 0114 (2025)

[230] Z. Lin , N. Zhang , Z. Xu , J. Liao , H. Yuan , E. Chenshen , J. Liu , J. Li , N. Zhao , and Q. Zhang , Modified iterative wavelets for background removal in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy based on fiber laser ablation, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 37(10), 2082 (2022)

[231] Z. Ouyang , C. Niu , Y. Liu , Z. Hu , and L. Guo , Ultra-sensitive detection of heavy metal aerosols: A hybrid LIBS-LIF and gated PMT enhancement approach, Talanta 283, 127091 (2025)

[232] Q. Min , X. B. Liu , M. G. Su , Y. H. Wu , D. X. Sun , S. Q. Cao , and C. Z. Dong , Numerical simulation of the effect of laser wavelength on nanosecond laser ablation and plasma characteristic, Phys. Plasmas 29(5), 052103 (2022)

[233] T. Hua,Y. Jun, Analysis and prospects for the development of spectral information in China from the perspective of the national natural science foundation of China, Chinese J. Lasers 52 (2025)

[234] Y. T. Fu , W. L. Gu , Z. Y. Hou , S. A. Muhammed , T. Q. Li , Y. Wang , and Z. Wang , Mechanism of signal uncertainty generation for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Front. Phys. (Beijing) 16(2), 22502 (2021)

[235] C. Sun , Y. Tian , L. Gao , Y. Niu , T. Zhang , H. Li , Y. Zhang , Z. Yue , N. Delepine-Gilon , and J. Yu , Machine learning allows calibration models to predict trace element concentration in soils with generalized LIBS spectra, Sci. Rep. 9(1), 11363 (2019)

[236] Z. Q. Hao , K. Liu , Q. L. Lian , W. R. Song , Z. Y. Hou , R. Zhang , Q. Q. Wang , C. Sun , X. Y. Li , and Z. Wang , Machine learning in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy: A review, Front. Phys. (Beijing) 19(6), 062501 (2024)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press