Regulatory issues for genetically modified animals

doi:10.15302/J-FASE-2019307

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Abstract：

Precision genetics and breeding have the potential to meet the agricultural needs and goals of the world in the 21st century. These needs include increasing the efficiency of production of animals and improving their products with minimal impact on the environment. The USA is the major innovator in genomic science and the acknowledged leader in formulating policies to regulate genetic applications in medicine and agriculture. However, governments worldwide have been exceedingly reluctant to support the introduction of genetically modified (GM) animals into agriculture. Regulatory policies have stagnated due to legal guidelines that could not anticipate the needs and solutions that are evident today. This must change if we are to maintain planetary integrity. I propose a new, market-based regulatory model for GM livestock that has both a strong scientific foundation and has worked for 10000 years. The model is similar to that for information technology in which specific algorithms drive computer and cell phone applications. Genome engineers write genetic algorithms that drive the traits in biological organisms. Accordingly, GM products should be viewed in terms of their use and public benefit rather than by limitations to the genetic programing coming from a few highly vocal groups. Genetic algorithms (Genapps) of the 21st century will include not only introduction of synthetic genes, but also complete natural and synthetic biochemical pathways to produce agricultural products that are maximally efficient, healthy to humans and animals, and sustainable in an era of changing climates while avoiding environmental degradation.

Keywords algorithms editing FDA GMO recombinant DNA USDA

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	Perry Bradbury HACKETT

引用本文:

Perry Bradbury HACKETT. Regulatory issues for genetically modified animals[J]. Front. Agr. Sci. Eng. , 2020, 7(2): 188-203.

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https://journal.hep.com.cn/fase/EN/10.15302/J-FASE-2019307 OR https://journal.hep.com.cn/fase/EN/Y2020/V7/I2/188

Fig.1 (a) Norman Borlaug (source: University of Minnesota with permission). (b) Yields of major coarse grains showing all grains except corn/maize (red line) with a best fit quadratic and total yields of corn/maize (green line) that is used predominantly for production of ethanol, feed for livestock, and high fructose corn syrup. The orange line shows the averaging of yields when corn is added to the other grains. (Graph is provided by Dr. Deepak Ray^[²^] with permission).

Fig.2 The world is changing. (a) World population and atmospheric CO₂ levels, adapted from Kaplan et al.^[¹¹^]. (b) Projections of global daily caloric intake per person and global energy usage, adapted from Graham-Rowe^[¹²^].

Fig.3 Models for regulation of genetically modified (GM) animals. (a) Proposed regulatory pathway. Producers sell GM animals to breeders who then sell to farmers and ranchers with minimal governmental registration to assure the public that the products are transparent. The outcomes are evaluated by the public markets. Good products are amplified as sales increase; if a bad product enters the market, correction is swift. (b) Current regulatory pathway. GM animals must pass review by government regulators before release to consumers. The criteria for passage are ill-defined, slow to change and hence expensive, time-consuming and uncertain. The result has been few new products, no new improvements and citizen uncertainty about safety.

Fig.4 Algorithm-based applications drive progress. (a) Evolution of the iPhone over a decade. (b) Exponential growth in applications for the iPhone over 11 years (adapted from Statista^[⁴⁴^], © Statista 2020). (c) Imaginary icon showing biological apps based on genetic algorithms.

Fig.5 Regulatory overlap of GM organisms by U.S. agencies.

Fig.6 Contribution of GM crops to world agriculture and the U.S. economy. (a) The steady adoption over the past 20 years of GM crops worldwide (source: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA)^[⁶¹^]). (b) U.S. biotechnology revenues (extrapolated) from 1980 to 2017 based on Carlson^[⁶²^]. The bars are data, while shaded areas are a numerical model pinned at 0 USD revenues in 1980 (1996 for GM crops).

Fig.7 Example of a classical Antennapedia^[⁶⁷^] developmental mutant found from X-ray mutagenesis of Drosophila melanogaster. (source: CC BY SA 3.0).

Fig.8 The futile cycle of risk assessment of GM animals. Regulatory agencies put out Requests for Applications to solve complex problems. Scientists write proposals in which a complex problem is broken down into specific sub-problems that can be studied in a laboratory environment where in as many variables as possible are controlled to ensure reproducibility. The results of the studies are published in elite journals because the problems they address are important^[¹²⁶^]. However, the experimental constraints of budgets, numbers of subjects, and control of environmental variables limit the applicability of the results to real-world issues. Hence, the problems remain unsolved for another cycle of inconclusive experimentation.

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